Finite Mathematics: An Applied Approach by Michael Sullivan

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.

CHAPTER
11
Logic
Chapter 11 p1
Finite Mathematics: An Applied Approach by Michael Sullivan
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
11.1 Propositions
Section 11.1 p2
Finite Mathematics: An Applied Approach by Michael Sullivan
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
Section 11.1 p3
English and other natural languages are composed of
various words and phrases with distinct functions that have
a bearing on the meaning of the sentences in which they
occur.
English sentences may be classified as declarative,
interrogative, exclamatory, or imperative. In the study of logic,
we assume that we are able to recognize a declarative
sentence (or statement) and to form an opinion as to whether
it is true or false.
11.1 Propositions
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Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
Section 11.1 p4
Definition
Proposition
A proposition is a declarative sentence that can be
meaningfully classified as either true or false.
11.1 Propositions
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Section 11.1 p5
In an ideal situation, a proposition could be easily and
decisively classified as true or false.
It is often difficult to classify propositions in this way
because of unclear meanings, ambiguous situations,
differences of opinion, etc.
In the mathematical treatment of logic, we avoid these
difficulties by assuming for the sake of argument either
the truth or the falsity of certain propositions to draw
conclusions about other propositions, using symbolic logic.
11.1 Propositions
Finite Mathematics: An Applied Approach by Michael Sullivan
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Section 11.1 p6
Consider the sentence Jones is handsome and Smith is
selfish. This sentence is obtained by joining the two
propositions Jones is handsome, Smith is selfish by the
word and.
It is called a compound proposition. In working with
propositions, we usually use lowercase letters such as p or q
to represent a proposition.
11.1 Propositions
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Section 11.1 p7
Definition
Compound Proposition; Connectives
A compound proposition is a proposition formed by
connecting two or more propositions or by negating a
single proposition.
The words and phrases (or symbols) used to form
compound propositions are called connectives.
11.1 Propositions
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Section 11.1 p8
Some of the connectives used in English are or; either or;
and; but; if , then.
11.1 Propositions
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Section 11.1 p9
Definition
Conjunction
Let p and q denote propositions. The compound proposition
p and q is called the conjunction of p and q and is denoted
symbolically by
p q
We define p q to be true when both p is true and q is true
and to be false otherwise.
11.1 Propositions
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Section 11.1 p10
Definition
Inclusive Disjunction
Let p and q be any propositions. The compound proposition
p or q is called the inclusive disjunction of p and q, read as
p or q or both, and is denoted symbolically by
p q
We define p q to be true if at least one of the propositions p,
q is true. That is, p q is true if both p and q are true, if p is
true and q is false, or if p is false and q is true. It is false only
if both p and q are false.
11.1 Propositions
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Section 11.1 p11
Definition
Exclusive Disjunction
Let p and q be any propositions. The exclusive disjunction
of p and q, read as either p or q, but not both, is denoted
symbolically by

We define to be true if exactly one of the
propositions p, q is true.
That is, is true if p is true and q is false, or if p is
false and q is true. It is false if both p and q are false or if
both p and q are true.
11.1 Propositions
p q v
p q v
p q v
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Section 11.1 p12
Definition
Negation
If p is any proposition, the negation of p, denoted by
~p
and read as not p, is a proposition that is false when p is
true and true when p is false.
11.1 Propositions
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Section 11.1 p13
The negation of p is sometimes called the denial of p. The
symbol ~ is called the negation operator.
The definition of ~p assumes that p and ~p cannot both be
true.
In logic this assumption is known as the Law of
Contradiction.
11.1 Propositions
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Section 11.1 p14
A quantifier is a word or phrase telling how many (Latin
quantus).
English quantifiers include all, none, some, and not
all.
The quantifiers all, every, and each are
interchangeable.
The quantifiers some, there exist(s), and at least one
are also interchangeable.
11.1 Propositions
Finite Mathematics: An Applied Approach by Michael Sullivan
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11.2 Truth Tables
Section 11.2 p15
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Section 11.2 p16
The truth value of a proposition is either true (denoted by T)
or false (denoted by F).
A truth table is a table that shows the truth value of a
compound proposition for all possible cases.
11.2 Truth Tables
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Section 11.2 p17
For example, consider the conjunction of any two
propositions p and q. Recall that p q is false if either p is
false, or q is false, or if both p and q are false. There are four
possible cases.
1. p is true and q is true.
2. p is true and q is false.
3. p is false and q is true.
4. p is false and q is false.
These four cases are listed in the first two columns of Table 1,
which is the truth table for p q.
For convenience, the cases for p and q will always be listed in
this order.
11.2 Truth Tables
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Section 11.2 p18
TABLE 1











11.2 Truth Tables
p q p q
Case 1 T T T
Case 2 T F F
Case 3 F T F
Case 4 F F F
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Section 11.2 p19
The truth table for ~p is given in Table 2.

TABLE 2









11.2 Truth Tables
p ~p
Case 1 T F
Case 2 F T
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Section 11.2 p20
Using the previous definitions of inclusive disjunction and
exclusive disjunction, we obtain truth tables for p q and
. See Table 3.

TABLE 3











11.2 Truth Tables
p q p q
Case 1 T T T F
Case 2 T F T T
Case 3 F T T T
Case 4 F F F F
p q v
v p q
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Section 11.2 p21
Besides using the connectives , , , ~ one at a time to form
compound propositions, we can use them together to form
more complex statements.
For example, Table 4 is the truth table for
The parentheses are used as grouping symbols (just like in
algebra) to indicate that and ~ are applied before
The parenthesis around ~p is not required as the negation
symbol behaves like a minus sign in algebra.
11.2 Truth Tables
( ) ( ). p q p v v
v
. v
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Section 11.2 p22

TABLE 4










To obtain Table 4, list each component of the proposition on the
top row, to the right of any intermediate steps; there is a column
underneath each component or connective.

11.2 Truth Tables
p q
Case 1 T T T
Case 2 T F T
Case 3 F T F
Case 4 F F T
( ) ( ) v v p q p
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Section 11.2 p23
Truth values are then entered in the truth table, one step at
a time. See the steps shown in Table 5.

TABLE 5 STEP 1











11.2 Truth Tables
p q p q ~p
Case 1 T T T
Case 2 T F T
Case 3 F T T
Case 4 F F F
( ) ( ) v v p q p
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Section 11.2 p24
TABLE 5 STEP 2













11.2 Truth Tables
p q p q ~p
Case 1 T T T F
Case 2 T F T F
Case 3 F T T T
Case 4 F F F T
( ) ( ) v v p q p
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Section 11.2 p25
TABLE 5 STEP 3












The truth table of the compound proposition then consists
of the original columns under p and q and the fifth column
entered into the table in the last step, as shown earlier in
Table 4.
11.2 Truth Tables
p q p q ~p
Case 1 T T T F T
Case 2 T F T F T
Case 3 F T T T F
Case 4 F F F T T
( ) ( ) v v p q p
Finite Mathematics: An Applied Approach by Michael Sullivan
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
Section 11.2 p26
Construct the truth table for (p ~ q) p. The component
parts of this proposition are and p, ~q, p ~q.

SOLUTION Construct Table 6.








11.2 Truth Tables
p q ~q (p ~q) (p ~q) p
Case 1 T T F T T
Case 2 T F T T T
Case 3 F T F F F
Case 4 F F T T F
EXAMPLE 1 Constructing a Truth Table
Finite Mathematics: An Applied Approach by Michael Sullivan
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
Section 11.2 p27
Definition
Logically Equivalent
If two propositions a and b have the same truth values in
every possible case, the propositions are called logically
equivalent and we write a b.
11.2 Truth Tables
Finite Mathematics: An Applied Approach by Michael Sullivan
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
Section 11.2 p28
Show that ~(p q) is logically equivalent to ~p ~q.
SOLUTION Construct the truth table in Table 9.









Since the entries in columns 4 and 7 of the truth table are
the same, the two propositions are logically equivalent.
11.2 Truth Tables
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
p q p q ~(p q) ~p ~q ~p ~q
T T T F F F F
T F F T F T T
F T F T T F T
F F F T T T T
EXAMPLE 4

Using Truth Tables to Show That Two Statements
Are Logically Equivalent
Finite Mathematics: An Applied Approach by Michael Sullivan
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Section 11.2 p29
Properties of Propositions
Idempotent Properties
For any proposition p,
p p p p p p
11.2 Truth Tables
Here p p p since p p is true when p is true, and is false
when p is false. A similar argument shows that p p p.
Finite Mathematics: An Applied Approach by Michael Sullivan
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Section 11.2 p30
Properties of Propositions
Commutative Properties
For any two propositions p and q,
p q q p p q q p
11.2 Truth Tables
The commutative properties state that, if two propositions
are combined using the connective and, changing the order
in which the components are connected does not change the
meaning of the compound proposition.
The same is true of the connective or.
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Section 11.2 p31
Properties of Propositions
Associative Properties
For any three propositions p, q, r,
(p q) r p (q r ) (p q) r p (q r )
11.2 Truth Tables
Because of the associative properties, it is possible to omit
the parentheses when using the same connective more than
once. For instance, we can write
p q r for (p q) r
and
p q r s for [(p q) r ] s
The same comments hold for . Note, however, that the
parentheses cannot be omitted when using and together.
Finite Mathematics: An Applied Approach by Michael Sullivan
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Section 11.2 p32
Properties of Propositions
Distributive Properties
For any three propositions p, q, r,
p (q r) (p q) (p r)
p (r q) (p r) (p q)
11.2 Truth Tables
Here, p (q r) (p q) (p r) means that p or (q and r) has
the same meaning as (p or q) and (p or r).
Also, p (r q) (p r) (p q) means that the compound
proposition p and (r or q) has the same meaning as (p and r)
or (p and q).
Finite Mathematics: An Applied Approach by Michael Sullivan
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
Section 11.2 p33
De Morgans Properties
For any two propositions p and q,
~(p q) ~p ~q ~(p q) ~p ~q

11.2 Truth Tables
Finite Mathematics: An Applied Approach by Michael Sullivan
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Section 11.2 p34
Absorption Properties
For any two propositions p and q,
p (p q) p p (p q) p
11.2 Truth Tables
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11.3 Implications; The
Biconditional Connective;
Tautologies
Section 11.3 p35
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Section 11.3 p36
Definition
Implication; Conditional Connective
If p and q are any two propositions, then we call the
proposition
If p, then q
an implication or conditional statement and the connective
if , then the conditional connective.
11.3 Implications; The Biconditional Connective; Tautologies
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Section 11.3 p37
Definition (continued)
Implication; Conditional Connective (continued)
11.3 Implications; The Biconditional Connective; Tautologies
We denote the conditional connective symbolically by
and the implication If p, then q by
In the implication p is called the hypothesis or
premise and q is called the conclusion. The implication
can also be read as follows:
1. p implies q.
2. p is sufficient for q.
3. p only if q.
4. q is necessary for p.
5. q, if p.

. p q
, p q
p q
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Section 11.3 p38
11.3 Implications; The Biconditional Connective; Tautologies
To arrive at the truth table for implication, consider the
following example. Suppose we make the statement
If IBM common stock reaches $180 per share, it will be sold.
When is the statement true and when is it false?
Clearly, if IBM stock reaches $180 per share and it is not
sold, the implication is false.
It is also clear that if IBM stock reaches $180 per share and it
is sold, the implication is true.
In other words, if the hypothesis and conclusion are both
true, the implication is true; if the hypothesis is true and the
conclusion false, the implication is false.
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Section 11.3 p39
11.3 Implications; The Biconditional Connective; Tautologies
But what happens when the hypothesis is false?
If IBM stock does not reach $180 a share, the stock might be
sold or it might not be sold.
In either case we would not say that a person making the
above statement was wrong. That is, we would not accuse
the person of making a false statement.
For this reason we say that an implication with a false
hypothesis is not false and, therefore, is true.
The truth table for implication is given in Table 13.
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Section 11.3 p40
11.3 Implications; The Biconditional Connective; Tautologies
TABLE 13








p q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
p q
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Section 11.3 p41
Definition
Converse
The implication if q, then p is called the converse of the
implication if p, then q. That is, is the converse of

11.3 Implications; The Biconditional Connective; Tautologies
q p
. p q
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Section 11.3 p42
Definition
Contrapositive
The implication If not q, then not p, written as
is called the contrapositive of the implication
11.3 Implications; The Biconditional Connective; Tautologies
. p q
, q p
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Section 11.3 p43
Definition
Inverse
The implication If not p, then not q, written as
is called the inverse of the implication If p, then q.
11.3 Implications; The Biconditional Connective; Tautologies
, p q
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Section 11.3 p44


TABLE 16









Statements Implication Converse Inverse Contrapositive
p q ~p ~q
T T T T F F T T
T F F T F T T F
F T T F T F F T
F F T T T T T T
EXAMPLE 4 Constructing a Truth Table
11.3 Implications; The Biconditional Connective; Tautologies
The truth tables for , , , are given in Table 16. p q q p p q q p ~ ~ ~
p q
q p p q q p
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Section 11.3 p45
Definition
Biconditional Connective
The connective if and only if is called the biconditional
connective and is denoted by the symbol
The compound proposition

is equivalent to

11.3 Implications; The Biconditional Connective; Tautologies
.
( if and only if ) p q p q
( ) ( ) p q q p .
The statement also may be read as p is necessary
and sufficient for q or as p implies q and q implies p.
(The abbreviation iff for if and only if is also
sometimes used.)
p q
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Section 11.3 p46
We can restate the definition of the biconditional connective
by using its truth table, Table 17.

TABLE 17









p q
T T T T T T
T F F T F F
F T T F F F
F F T T T T
11.3 Implications; The Biconditional Connective; Tautologies
p q q p
( ) ( ) . p q q p p q
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Section 11.3 p47
Definition
Tautology
A tautology is a compound proposition P(p, q, ) that is
true in every possible case.
11.3 Implications; The Biconditional Connective; Tautologies
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Section 11.3 p48
Examples of tautologies are

Tables 18 and 19 show the truth tables of these tautologies.

TABLE 18 TABLE 19








p q
T T T T
T F T T
F T T T
F F F T
11.3 Implications; The Biconditional Connective; Tautologies
( ) v p p q
( ) p p p p q v v
v p q p ~p
T F T
F T T
v p p
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Section 11.3 p49
Definition
The Law of Substitution
Suppose p and h are propositions and h p. If h is
substituted for p in the compound proposition P(p, q, ), a
logically equivalent proposition is obtained:
P(p, q, ) P(h, q, )
The law of substitution is often used to obtain new versions
of existing tautologies.
It is particularly useful in mathematics for constructing
tautologies of a certain kind, known as valid arguments or
proofs.
11.3 Implications; The Biconditional Connective; Tautologies
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11.4 Arguments
Section 11.4 p50
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Section 11.4 p51
Definition
Argument
An argument or proof consists of a set of propositions p
1
, p
2
,
, p
n
called the premises or hypotheses, and a proposition
q, called the conclusion.
An argument is valid if and only if the conclusion is true
whenever the premises are all true.
An argument that is not valid is called a fallacy or an
invalid argument.
11.4 Arguments
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Section 11.4 p52
In a direct proof we go through a chain of propositions,
beginning with the hypotheses and leading to the desired
conclusion.
11.4 Arguments
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Section 11.4 p53
Law of Detachment


11.4 Arguments
If the implication is true and is true, then must
be true.
p q p q
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Section 11.4 p54
Law of Syllogism
Let p, q, r be three propositions. If


11.4 Arguments
and p q q r
are both true, then is true. p r
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Section 11.4 p55
In any valid proof one shows that an implication
is a tautology.
To do this by the method of indirect proof, we tentatively
suppose that q is false (equivalently, that ~q is true) and
show that we are thereby led to a contradictionthat is, a
logically impossible situation.
This contradiction can be resolved only by abandoning the
supposition that the conclusion is false.
Therefore, it must be true.
An indirect proof is also called a proof by contradiction.
11.4 Arguments
p q
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11.5 Logic Circuits
Section 11.5 p56
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Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
Section 11.5 p57
A logic circuit is a type of electrical circuit widely used in
computers and other electronic devices (such as calculators,
cell phones, and mp3 players). The simplest logic circuits,
called gates, have the following properties.
1. Current flows to the circuit through one or two connectors
called input lines and from the circuit through a connector
called the output line.
2. The current in any of the input or output lines may have
either of two possible voltage levels. The higher level is
denoted by 1 and the lower level by 0. (Level 1 is sometimes
referred to as On or True; Level 0 may be referred to as Off
or False.)
3. The voltage level of the output line depends on the voltage
level(s) of the input line(s), according to rules of logic similar
to the principles discussed in Section 11.2.
11.5 Logic Circuits
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Section 11.5 p58
The three most basic types of gates are the inverter (or NOT
gate), the AND gate, and the OR gate.
The standard symbols for inverters, AND gates, and OR
gates appear in Figure 1.
In each case, the input lines appear at the left of the diagram
and the output line at the right.
11.5 Logic Circuits








FIGURE 1
Finite Mathematics: An Applied Approach by Michael Sullivan
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Section 11.5 p59
The label on each line denotes the voltage level or truth value
of that line; the symbols ~p, pq (or p q), and p q (or p q)
are defined by the output tables in Tables 21, 22, and 23.
Note that ~p = 1 p and



TABLE 21 TABLE 22 TABLE 23







11.5 Logic Circuits
{ }
if
max ,
if
p p q
p q p q
q q p
>
= =
`
<
)

p q
1 1 1
1 0 1
0 1 1
0 0 0
p q pq
1 1 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 0
p ~p
1 0
0 1
(~p = 1 p)
p q
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Section 11.5 p60
Since the output tables for circuits have the same form as
the truth tables for propositions (with 1 and 0
corresponding to T and F, pq corresponding to p q, and
corresponding to p q), the principles of logic
formulated in Section 11.2 apply.
We can translate these principles as follows:
11.5 Logic Circuits
p q
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Section 11.5 p61
1. Idempotent properties
pp = p
2. Associative properties
(pq)r = p(qr)
3. Commutative properties
pq = qp
4. Distributive properties

5. De Morgans properties

6. Absorption properties

11.5 Logic Circuits
p p p =
( ) ( ) p q r p q r =
p q q p =
( )( ) p qr p q p r = ( ) p q r pq pr =
( ) ( )( ) p q p q = ( ) pq p q =
p pq p = ( ) p p q p =
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Section 11.5 p62
These properties are often useful in simplifying the design
of circuits.
If two circuits perform the same function and one has fewer
gates and connectors than the other, the simpler circuit is
preferred because it is less expensive to manufacture or
purchase, and also because it is less likely to fail due to
overheating or physical stress.
Very often it will also be more efficient in terms of power
consumption and speed of operation.
11.5 Logic Circuits
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Section 11.5 p63
The standard symbols for NAND,NOR, and XOR gates,
and their outputs, are shown in Figure 6. (The names are
abbreviations for NOT-AND, NOT-OR, and Exclusive-OR,
respectively.) Table 25 is the output table for XOR.

FIGURE 6 TABLE 25










11.5 Logic Circuits
p q
1 1 0
1 0 1
0 1 1
0 0 0
v p q
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Select the best answer
for each of the following
multiple choice questions.
Chapter 11.MC p64
11.Extra Multiple Choice Questions
Finite Mathematics: An Applied Approach by Michael Sullivan
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11.Extra Multiple Choice Questions
1. Formulate the contrapositive of the following
statement: If it is raining, then the roads are
slippery.
A. If it is not raining, then the roads are
slippery.
B. If it is not raining, then the roads are not
slippery.
C. If the roads are not slippery, then it is not
raining.
D. If the roads are slippery, then it is raining.
Chapter 11.MC p65
Finite Mathematics: An Applied Approach by Michael Sullivan
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
11.Extra Multiple Choice Questions
2. If proposition p has a truth value of T and
proposition q has a truth value of F, find the
truth value of each of the following:
(a) ~(p ~q) (b) (~p ~q) (p q)
A. (a) T (b) T
B. (a) T (b) F
C. (a) F (b) T
D. (a) F (b) F
Chapter 11.MC p66
Finite Mathematics: An Applied Approach by Michael Sullivan
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11.Extra Multiple Choice Questions
3. Which of the following statements is a
tautology?
(a) (p ~p) (q ~q) (b)
A. (a) is a tautology and (b) is a tautology.
B. Only (a) is a tautology.
C. Only (b) is a tautology.
D. Neither (a) nor (b) is a tautology.
Chapter 11.MC p67
( ) ( ) p q q p v
Finite Mathematics: An Applied Approach by Michael Sullivan
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
11.Extra Multiple Choice Questions
4. Which of the statements below are
logically equivalent to the statement,
~p q?
(a) q ~p (b) p q
(c) p ~q (d) ~(p ~q)
A. (a) and (b)
B. (a) and (c)
C. (a) and (d)
D. (a), (c) and (d)
Chapter 11.MC p68
Finite Mathematics: An Applied Approach by Michael Sullivan
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
11.Extra Multiple Choice Questions
Answers for the Multiple Choice Questions
1. C. If the roads are not slippery, then it
is not raining.
2. C. (a) F (b) T
3. C. Only (b) is a tautology.
4. C. (a) and (d)
Chapter 11.MC p69