Position of IP and other network-layer protocols in

TCP/IP protocol suite

19.1
 What do we do in this section?

1. Define the Network-layer Services

2. Look at Packet Switching at network
layer. This section could have been
covered under the PHYSICAL Layer
3. Network-layer Performance measures
4. IP version 4 addressing
5. IP protocol (V4 and V6)
 Communication at the network layer

18.4
 NETWORK-LAYER SERVICES

18.5
 Packet Forwarding example

Forwarding Send the packet

value out of interface 2
B Data B Data

18.6
 Example Packet Switching

18.7
 A connectionless packet-switched network

18.8
 Forwarding process in a router when used in a
connectionless network

SA DA Data SA DA Data

18.9
 NETWORK-LAYER PERFORMANCE

18.10
 Delay (also called latency)

Jitter (variance in delays) of packets belonging

To the same stream (source-destination pairs

18.11
 Throughput

18.12
 A path through the Internet backbone

18.13
 Effect of throughput in shared links

18.14
 Packet Loss (Blocking Probability)

Ratio of lost packets over the total number

transmitted.

Note: packets can be lost as a result of:

• irretrievable errors.
• Overflowing buffers causing new arrivals tobe
discarded

18.15
 Congestion and its Control

18.16
 Packet delay and throughput as functions of load

18.17
 Backpressure method for alleviating congestion

18.18
 Figure 4.15: Choke packet

18.19
 Switching at the Network & Physical Layers

8.20
 Switched network

8.21
 Three Methods of Switching

8.22
 circuit-switched network

Data transfer

Tdelay t setup  Tconversation  tteardown

t setup tdialling  t prop
8.23
 Efficiency

It can be argued that circuit-switched networks are

not as efficient as the other two types of networks
because resources are allocated during the entire
duration of the connection. These resources are
unavailable to other connections. In a telephone
network conversation, people normally terminate the
communication when they have finished their
conversation.

8.24
 Delay

8.25
 PACKET SWITCHING

8.26
 Datagram Networks

Payload heade
(data) r

Packet
8.27
 A Datagram network with four switches (routers)

3 1
4 3 2 1
4
1

2 3
1
4
2 2 3 4 1

8.28
 Routing table in a datagram network

8.29
 Delays in a datagram network

8.30
Packet switching network (connectionless)
Information relayed in packet form. Each packet has a header that has to queue
Before being processed at each node. As such delays are incurred at each node

information header

Information packet

Packet

Tdelay tqueue  ttransmsision  t propagatio n

 Virtual-Circuit Networks

8.32
 Virtual-circuit identifier

8.33
 Switch and table for a virtual-circuit network

8.34
 Source-to-destination data transfer in a circuit-switch
network

8.35
 Setup request in a virtual-circuit network

8.36
 Setup acknowledgment in a virtual-circuit network

8.37
 Delay in a virtual-circuit network

8.38
 Virtual-circuit switching network

Tdelay t setup  Ttransfer  tteardown

8.39
STRUCTURE OF A SWITCH
switching array

n nxk k
Multi Stage switch
 Non blocking Multistage switch
• How do we design a
multi- stage switch
such that it is minimal
blocking?
N multi-stage switch N
• Use Clos citerion

n N and k 2n  1
2

n nxk k kxk kxn n

k k k
 Structure of Packet Switches

8.43
 Input port

8.44
 Output port

8.45
 A Self Routing Switch

8.46
 Example of routing in a self routing switch (Part a)

8.47
 Example of routing in a self routing switch (Part b)

8.48
 NETWORK-LAYER PROTOCOLS

19.49
 Position of IP and other network-layer protocols in

TCP/IP protocol suite

19.50
 IP addressing:

18.51
 Address Space

18.52
 IP version 4

Three different notations in IPv4 addressing

18.53
 Hierarchy in addressing

18.54
 (approaches to IP version 4
addressing
 Classful addressing: address capacity
allocated according to classes
 Classless adressing ( adress capacity
allocated according to required capacity
i.e in block form.
 DHCP (dynamic host configuration
protocol: facilitates address assignment
only when required.
 NAT (network address translation): use of
private adresses
 Classful Addressing

To accommodate both small and large networks,

three fixed-length prefixes were designed instead of
one
prefix=n = 8 =2^8 networks:
prefix = n = 16=2^16 networks:
prefix n = 24 = 2^24 networks.

Whole address space was divided into five classes

(class A, B, C, D, and E),

18.56
 Occupation of the address space in classful addressing

18.57
 Classless Addressing

Clasful addressing was wasteful of space. , i.e big

corporations like Microsoft took all IP addresses, yet
they did not exactly need all of them.

Solution was Variable-length blocks in classless

addressing

18.58
 Slash notation (CIDR)

18.59
 Information extraction in classless addressing

18.60
Example 18.1

18.61
 Network address

18.62
 Example of address aggregation

18.63
 DHCP

18.64
 Operation of DHCP

18.65
 NAT

In any domain network only a p fraction of hosts

network need access to the Internet simultaneously.
Hence, to save on address space, we can use private
addresses internally and universal addresses for
external connections.
We install a Network Address Translation (NAT)
Router that will map private and universal
(standard) IP addresses.

18.66
 NAT

18.67
 Address translation

18.68
 FORWARDING OF IP PACKETS

Packets forwarding was discussed

earlier. We further discus it here

18.69
 Figure 18.33: Configuration for Example 4.7

18.70
 Network
Layer
Protocols (IP version 4 and
6 (an overview)

Chapter 19,22
 NETWORK-LAYER PROTOCOLS

19.72
 Position of IP and other network-layer protocols in

TCP/IP protocol suite

19.73
 IP datagram [ Two parts: Header plus payload]

19.74
IP version 4 Fields
 VER: IP version (e.g 4 or 6)
 HLEN: total length of the datagram
header in 4-byte words.
 TOS/ (service type): Defines how
datagram should be handled.
 Total Length: 16 bit filed indicating
total length (header plus data) up to
65635.
IP version 4 Field cont’
IP version 4 Fields cont’
 TTL : defines the number of hops a
packet can wonder in the network
e.g TTL =128 decrements by one
each time a router is traversed.
 Protocol: defines which upper layer
protocol must handle the packet
IP version 4 Header Field
cont’
Example:
 An IPv4 packet has arrived with the
first 8 bits as (01000010) The
receiver discards the packet. Why?
Minimum header length =20.
 In an IPv4 packet, the value of HLEN
is (1000). How many bytes of options
are being carried by this packet? [ 20
bytes header +plus 12 bytes options]
Example
 In an IPv4 packet, the value of HLEN is 5,
and the value of the total length field is
(0028) HEX. How many bytes of data are
being carried by this packet?
 The HLEN value is 5, which means the
total number of bytes in the header is 5 ×
4, or 20 bytes (no options). The total
length is (0028) HEX or 40 bytes, which
means the packet is carrying 20 bytes of
data (40 − 20).
 Example cont’
 An IPv4 packet has arrived with the
first few hexadecimal digits as shown.

 How many hops can this packet travel

before being dropped? The data
belong to what upper-layer protocol?

Go over the fragmentation example pp56

 Fragmentation

A datagram can travel through different networks.

Each router decapsulates the IP datagram from the
frame it receives, processes it, and then encapsulates
it in another frame. The format and size of the
received frame depend on the protocol used by the
physical network through which the frame has just
traveled. The format and size of the sent frame
depend on the protocol used by the physical network
through which the frame is going to travel. For
example, if a router connects a LAN to a WAN, it
receives a frame in the LAN format and sends a
frame in the WAN format.
19.82
 Maximum transfer unit (MTU)

19.83
 Figure 19.6: Fragmentation example

19.84
 Detailed fragmentation example

19.85
 IPv6 Addressing (also called IPng)

22.86
 Representation

A computer normally stores the address in binary,

but it is clear that 128 bits cannot easily be handled
by humans. Several notations have been proposed to
represent IPv6 addresses when they are handled by
humans. The following shows two of these
notations: binary and colon hexadecimal.

22.87
 Address Space

22.88
Main Highlights of the IP ng (IP
v6)
Better header format. IPv6 uses a new header format in
which options are separated from the base header and
inserted, when needed, between the base header and the data.
This simplifies and speeds up the routing process because most
of the options do not need to be checked by routers.
 New options. IPv6 has new options to allow for additional
functionalities.
 Allowance for extension. IPv6 is designed to allow the
extension of the protocol if required by new technologies or
applications.
 Support for resource allocation. In IPv6, the type-of-service
field has been removed, but two new fields, traffic class and
flow label, have been added to enable the source to request
special handling of the packet. This mechanism can be used to
support traffic such as real-time audio and video.
 Support for more security. The encryption and
authentication options in IPv6 provide confidentiality and
integrity of the packet.
 Address Space Allocation

Like the address space of IPv4, the address space of

IPv6 is divided into several blocks of varying size
and each block is allocated for a special purpose.
Most of the blocks are still unassigned and have
been set aside for future use. Table below shows
only the assigned blocks. In this table, the last
column shows the fraction each block occupies in
the whole address space..

22.90
 Global unicast address

Defines site Defines subnet Defines interface

22.91
 THE IPv6 PROTOCOL

22.92
 IPv6 datagram [ Packet Format]

22.93
Header Fields:
Payload Field
 Next header. The next header is an 8-bit field
defining the type of the first extension header (if
present) or the type of the data that follows the base
header in the datagram. This field is similar to the
protocol field in IPv4, but we talk more about it when we
discuss the payload.
 Hop limit. The 8-bit hop limit field serves the same
purpose as the TTL field in IPv4.
 Source and destination addresses. The source
address field is a 16-byte (128-bit) Internet address that
identifies the original source of the datagram. The
destination address field is a 16-byte (128-bit) Internet
address that identifies the destination of the datagram.

 Payload. Compared to IPv4, the payload field in IPv6

has a different format and meaning
 TRANSITION FROM IPv4 TO IPv6

22.96
 Strategies

22.97
 Dual stack

22.98
 Tunneling strategy

22.99
 Header translation strategy

22.100