Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

NALLA MALLA REDDY ENGINEERING COLLEGE

Autonomous Institution

OPTICAL COMMUNICATION
Additional Course (EC86CPE)

By
C Srinivas
Assistant Professor
ECE Department
1
 SYLLABUS
UNIT-I : Overview of Optical Fiber Communications

Introduction: Historical development, The general system,Advantages of Optical

Fiber Communications, Optical Fiber Wave Guides- Introduction, Ray Theory
Transmission, Total Internal Reflection, Acceptance Angle, Numerical Aperture,
Skew Rays, Cylindrical Fibers- Modes, V number, Mode Coupling, Step Index
Fibers, Graded Index Fibers.
Single Mode Fibers- Cut Off Wavelength, Mode Field Diameter, Effective
Refractive Index, Fiber Materials Glass, Halide, Active Glass, Chalgenide Glass,
Plastic Optical Fibers.
UNIT-II : Signal Distortion in Optical Fibers
Signal Distortion in Optical Fibers: Attenuation, Absorption, Scattering and
Bending Losses, Core and Cladding Losses, Information Capacity Determination,
Group Delay, Types of Dispersion – Material Dispersion, Wave-Guide Dispersion,
2
Polarization Mode Dispersion, Intermodal Dispersion, Pulse Broadening, Optical
Fiber Connectors- Connector Types, Single Mode Fiber Connectors, Connector
Return Loss.
 SYLLABUS

UNIT-III : Fiber Splicing , Optical Sources

Fiber Splicing: Splicing Techniques, Splicing Single Mode Fibers, Fiber

Alignment and Joint Loss-Multimode Fiber Joints, Single Mode Fiber Joints.
Optical Sources- LEDs, Structures, Materials, Quantum Efficiency, Power,
Modulation, Power Bandwidth Product, Injection Laser Diodes- Modes,
Threshold Conditions, External Quantum Efficiency, Laser Diode Rate Equations,
Resonant Frequencies, Reliability of LED & ILD.
Source to Fiber Power Launching: - Output Patterns, Power Coupling, Power
Launching, Equilibrium Numerical Aperture, Laser Diode to Fiber Coupling .
UNIT- IV : Optical Detectors

Optical Detectors: Physical Principles of PIN and APD, Detector Response

Time,Temperature Effect on Avalanche Gain, Comparison of Photo Detectors,
3 Optical Receiver Operation- Fundamental Receiver Operation, Digital Signal
Transmission, Error Sources,Receiver Configuration, Digital Receiver
Performance, Probability of Error, Quantum Limit, Analog Receivers.
 SYLLABUS

UNIT- V: Optical System Design

Optical System Design: Considerations, Component Choice,

Multiplexing, Point-to- Point Links, System Considerations, Link
Power Budget with Examples, Overall Fiber Dispersion in Multi-
Mode and Single Mode Fibers, Rise Time Budget with Examples.
Transmission Distance, Line Coding in Optical Links, WDM,
Necessity, Principles, Types of WDM, Measurement of Attenuation
andDispersion, Eye Pattern.

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 COURSE OBJECTIVES

The objectives of this course:

· To realize the significance of optical fiber communications.

· To understand the construction and characteristics of optical fiber

cable.

· To develop the knowledge of optical signal sources and power

launching.

· To identify and understand the operation of various optical detectors.

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 To understand the design of optical systems and WDM.

 COURSE OUTCOMES

The objectives of this course:

· Understand and analyze the constructional parameters of optical

fibers.

· Be able to design an optical system.

· Estimate the losses due to attenuation, absorption, scattering and

bending.

 Compare various optical detectors and choose suitable one for

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different applications.
 UNIT-1
Overview
of
Optical Fiber Communication

7
 Introduction
 Optical fiber communication is a technology that uses light to transmit data
through thin strands of glass or plastic fibers.

 It is a crucial advancement in modern telecommunications, enabling high-speed

data transfer over long distances with minimal signal loss

 Optical fiber communication works on the principle of total internal reflection

(TIR). Light signals, typically generated by a laser or LED, travel through the
fiber core by continuously bouncing off its inner walls.

 The core is surrounded by a cladding layer with a lower refractive index,

ensuring the light remains trapped within the core
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 Introduction
 Single-mode fiber (SMF): Used for long-distance communication; carries a
single light mode.
 Multi-mode fiber (MMF): Used for shorter distances; carries multiple light
modes, leading to modal dispersion.
 The frequency range of optical fiber communication is from 1THz to 1000THz.
Wavelength ranging from 300µm to 0.3µm.

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 Diagram
 An optical fiber is a thin, flexible, and transparent strand made primarily of glass
or plastic. It consists of three main parts:
 Core
 The innermost part of the fiber where light travels
 Made of high-purity glass or plastic
 Has a high refractive index to keep light signals inside
 In single-mode fiber (SMF), the core is very thin (about 8-10 microns)
 In multi-mode fiber (MMF), the core is thicker (50-62.5 microns)

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 Diagram
 Cladding
 Surrounds the core and has a lower refractive index
 Ensures total internal reflection (TIR), keeping the light inside the core
 Prevents signal loss and maintains efficient transmission

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 Diagram
 Cotting (Buffer Layer)
 A protective layer around the cladding, made of plastic
 Protects the fiber from moisture, bending, and physical damage

 Outer Jacket (Shealth)

 The final protective layer, usually made of strong plastic
 Shields the fiber from environmental and mechanical damage

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 Historical Developments

 Optical communication has evolved significantly over the centuries, from simple visual signals
to sophisticated fiber optic networks that power modern telecommunications. Below is a
chronological overview of key developments:

 Ancient Optical Communication (Before 19th Century)

• Smoke Signals (Prehistoric Era - Ancient Civilizations)

• Used by Native Americans, Chinese, and Greeks for long-distance messaging.

• Beacon Fires (Ancient Greece & China, ~500 BCE - 13th Century CE)
• Used in military signaling (e.g., the Great Wall of China).

• Heliographs (Classical & Medieval Periods, ~200 BCE - 19th Century)

• Sunlight-reflecting mirrors used for Morse code-like communication.

• Optical Telegraph (1792)

• Invented by Claude Chappe in France, using semaphore towers.
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 Historical Developments

 Optical communication has evolved significantly over the centuries, from simple visual signals
to sophisticated fiber optic networks that power modern telecommunications. Below is a
chronological overview of key developments:

 Ancient Optical Communication (Before 19th Century)

• Smoke Signals (Prehistoric Era - Ancient Civilizations)

• Used by Native Americans, Chinese, and Greeks for long-distance messaging.

• Beacon Fires (Ancient Greece & China, ~500 BCE - 13th Century CE)
• Used in military signaling (e.g., the Great Wall of China).

• Heliographs (Classical & Medieval Periods, ~200 BCE - 19th Century)

• Sunlight-reflecting mirrors used for Morse code-like communication.

• Optical Telegraph (1792)

• Invented by Claude Chappe in France, using semaphore towers.
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 Historical Developments
 The Rise of Optical Science (19th Century)

• Total Internal Reflection (1854)

• John Tyndall demonstrated light guiding in water jets, a precursor to fiber optics.
• Alexander Graham Bell’s Photophone (1880)
• Transmitted voice using modulated light beams over short distances

 Early 20th Century: Foundations of Fiber Optics

• First Optical Fiber Patents (1930s-1950s)

• Heinrich Lamm (1930) transmitted images through optical fibers.
• Narinder Singh Kapany (1954) coined the term “fiber optics” and refined optical transmission

 .
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 Historical Developments
 The Modern Fiber Optic Revolution (1960s-Present)

• Invention of the Laser (1960)

• Theodore Maiman developed the first working laser, crucial for optical communication.

• Low-loss Optical Fiber (1970)

• Corning Glass Works developed fiber with attenuation below 20 dB/km, making practical
long-distance fiber communication possible.

• First Fiber Optic Telephone System (1977)

• Chicago and Long Beach, California, saw early fiber-optic phone networks.

• First Transatlantic Fiber Optic Cable (TAT-8, 1988)

• Installed between the U.S., U.K., and France, carrying 40,000 phone calls simultaneously.

• Erbium-Doped Fiber Amplifiers (EDFA, 1990s)

• Revolutionized fiber optics by boosting signal strength over long distances.
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• Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM, Late 1990s-Present)
• Enabled multiple data streams over a single fiber, massively increasing bandwidth.
 Historical Developments
21st Century and Beyond

• Fiber-to-the-Home (FTTH) Expansion (2000s-Present)

• High-speed broadband over optical fiber (e.g., Google Fiber, Verizon Fios).

• Silicon Photonics & Optical Computing (2010s-Present)

• Integrating optical communication into microchips for ultra-fast data processing.

• Quantum Communication & Secure Fiber Networks (2020s-Present)

• Quantum key distribution (QKD) enhances cybersecurity in fiber network

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 Evolution of fiber optic system
First generation

• Uses GaAs semiconductor laser

• Operating region was near 0.8 μm.
• Bit rate: 45 Mb/s
• Repeater spacing: 10 km

Second generation

• Bit rate: 100 Mb/s to 1.7 Gb/s

• Repeater spacing: 50 km
• Operation wavelength: 1.3 μm
•
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Semiconductor: InGaAsP
 Evolution of fiber optic system
Third generation

• Bit rate : 10 Gb/s

• Repeater spacing: 100 km
• Operating wavelength: 1.55 μm

Fourth generation

• Fourth generation uses WDM technique

• Bit rate: 10 Tb/s
• Repeater spacing: > 10,000 km
• Operating wavelength: 1.45 to 1.62 μm
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 Evolution of fiber optic system
Fifth generation

• Uses Roman amplification technique and optical solitons

• Bit rate: 40 - 160 Gb/s

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 Elements of Optical Fiber Transmission System

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Advantages
• Thinner
• Less Expensive
• Higher Carrying Capacity
• Less Signal Degradation& Digital Signals
• Light Signals
• Non-Flammable
• Light Weight

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 Advantages
 Much Higher Bandwidth (Gbps) - Thousands of
channels can be multiplexed together over one
strand of fiber
 Immunity to Noise - Immune to
electromagnetic interference (EMI).
 Safety - Doesn’t transmit electrical
signals, making it safe in environments like
a gas pipeline.
 High Security - Impossible to “tap into.”

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 Advantages
 Less Loss - Repeaters can be spaced 75 miles apart (fibers
can be made to have only 0.2 dB/km of attenuation)

 Reliability - More resilient than copper

in extreme environmental conditions, life
span is about 20-30 years.

 Size - Lighter and more compact than copper.

 Flexibility - Fiber is physically very flexible,

unlike impure, brittle glass.
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 Advantages
• greater capacity (bandwidth up to 2 Gbps, or more)

• smaller size and lighter weight

• lower attenuation

• immunity to environmental interference

• highly secure due to tap difficulty and

• lack of signal radiation

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 Disadvantages of fiber optics

• Disadvantages include the cost of interfacing

equipment necessary to convert electrical signals to
optical signals. (optical transmitters, receivers) Splicing
fiber optic cable is also more difficult.

• Initial cost of installation is high.

• Maintenance and repairing cost is high.

Areas of Application
• Telecommunications
• Local Area Networks
• Cable TV
• CCTV
• Optical Fiber Sensors
 RAY OPTICS
Refraction and Total Internal Reflection
• Optical fibers work on the principle of total internal reflection
• The angle of refraction at the interface between two media is
governed by Snell’s law:

n1 sin 1  n2 sin
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30
 REFRACTIVE INDEX
• The fundamental optical parameter of a material is the Refractive Index (Index of
refraction). Reprenst the amount of refraction in the material.

• Refractive index is denoted by ‘n’.

• In the free space light travels with the velocity of light i.e c=3x10^8 m/s. Upon
entering the dielectric or non conducting medium the wave now travels with
the speed (v) which is characteristic of the material which is less than c.

• Refractive index(n)=velocity of light in first substance/velocity of light in second

substance. n=c/v.
• n=1 for air ;
• n=1.33 for water ;
31 • n=1.5 for glass ;
• n=3.4 for silicon ;
• N= 2-2.4 for diamond;
 OpticalLaws
• Law of Reflection :
• The law of reflections states that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
reflection. It occurs when the incidence ray and the refracted ray both lie in the same
surface called as the plane of incidence.

• Law of Refraction:
• When the light ray passes from one medium to another medium having different
refractive indices then the light ray will get refracted into the another medium, where
the light ray will bend depending on the characteristics of the material of the second
medium.

• Snell’s Law : relates the angle of incidence and angle of refraction between two
mediums.
• When the light ray is incident from high dense (n1) medium to the low dense medium
32 (n2) . If its is incident an angle of incidence the part of the signal is incident in same
medium and and remaining part of the wave is refracted back to the second medium.
• n2<n1. φ2> φ1. n1sin φ1=n2sin φ2
33
 OpticalFiber
• Critical Angle:

• When the angle of incidence that causes the refracted ray to travel along the interface of
the two mediums is called as the critical angle.
Since n1sin φ1=n2sin φ2
at critical angle φ1= φc and φ1= 90
n1sin φc=n2
φc =sin-1 (n2/n 1)

• Total Internal Reflection: When the angle of incidence is greater than the critical
angle then the wave will be totally reflected back into the same medium without any
refracted part, this concept is called as the total internal reflection. The two conditions
for the total internal reflection is
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• 1. n1>n2,
• 2. φ1 >φ2.
Total Internal Reflection in Fiber
 OpticalFiber
• Acceptance Angle :

• The maximum angle at which the light ray may enter the fiber axis to propagate
through the cable.

• In optical fiber the light ray enters the fiber at different angles. If the angle is greater than
the critical angle , then the light ray can enter into the core of the fiber optic. That angel
is called as the acceptance angle.

• If the angle of entering the light ray into the optical fiber is greater than the acceptance
angle then the light ray is literally rejected by the optical fiber to enter inside the core.
• φA(max)= sin-1 √(n12 - n 22)

• Acceptence Cone :
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• The angle within which the light ray is accepted to travel into the core and travel inside
the optical fiber.
37
 OpticalFiber
• Numerical Aperture : In Optics the NA is a dimensionless quantity that
characterises the range of angles over which the system can accept or
emit light.
• The maximum angle in which the external light ray strikes the
air/glass and still propagate down the fiber.

• Light gathering and light collecting capability of fiber .

• The angle of acceptance is twice that given by the numerical aperture.
• NA=sinφA(max). It also depends on index difference delta Δ
• NA= = n1(2 Δ) Where Δ= ()

• = Core refractive index,

38 • n2 = Cladding refractive index
• n0=refractive index of air
 Numerical Aperture
• Light gathering and acceptance capability of fiber .
• The angle of acceptance is twice that given by the numerical
aperture

N.A. n12  n22



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 Optical Fiber

• The index of refraction of the cladding is less than that of the

core,
causing rays of light leaving the core to be refracted back into the core
n1>n2
• A light-emitting diode (LED) or laser diode (LD) can be used for
the source
• Jacket:
• Advantages of optical fiber include:
 Greater bandwidth than copper
 Lower loss
 Immunity to crosstalk
 No electrical hazard

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 Ray Optics
 Ray optics also known as geometric optics describes how the
light ray propagates along the fiber in terms of rays.
 The exact path of the ray can be determined based on the
position and the angle of ray at which it strikes the optical fiber
core.
 Based on the path there are two rays
1. Meridional Ray
2. Skew Ray
 Meridional ray enter the fiber through its axis and cross the
fiber axis at each reflection.

 Theyare classified as two types

 Bound type (refracted along the core)
 Unbound type (refracted out of the core)
Ray Optics
 Ray Optics
 Skew Ray

 They are not transmitted through the fiber axis and donot cross
the axis.
 They follow the helical path when they travel along the fiber.
 Do not cross the axis at each reflection
 Difficult to track the path as they do not lie on the single path.
 Helical path changes based on the ϒ value. ϒ is the angle
between each reflection.
 φA= sin-1 ()
 Optical Fiber Modes and Configurations
 The optical fiber is a dielectric waveguide that operates at
optical frequency.
 The propagation of light along a waveguide can be described in
terms of a set of guided electromagnetic waves called the modes.
 These guided modes are referred to as bound or trapped modes.
 Only certain discrete number of modes can propagate along
fiber.
 Modes satisfies the homogeneous equation in the fiber and
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boundary conditions a the surface.

 Optical Fiber Modes and Configurations
 The light ray propagates along the waveguide as guided EM
wave or guided modes.
 It is a pattern of E and H field distribution along the fiber
repeated at equal intervals.
 The number of paths or light propagation along the optical
cable is called as the mode of the optical fiber .
 They are of two types
 Single mode ( only one path for propagation)
 Multimode fiber (multiple paths for propagation)
 Modes and Configurations

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 Single mode and multimode

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 Optical Fiber Modes and Configurations
Single Mode Fiber Multimode Fiber
Large information capacity Low information capacity
No Intermodal dispersion (IMD) Intermodal dispersion (each ray
therefore it is widely used mode. received at Rx simultaneously
Used for long distance creates dispersion). Used for short
communication. distance communication (<1Km).
Core Diameter is Narrow Large Core diameter.

LASER is used to excite the light LED is used to excite the light
propagation propagation
Fabrication is difficult and coslier Fabrication is easy and low cost.
 Modes and Configurations

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 Index Profiles
 Index profile is the graphical representation of the refractive
index variation across the optical fiber.
 They are of two types- Step Index and Graded Index

Step Index Fiber Graded Index Fiber

Step change in refractive index Refractive index varies as the
at core and cladding interface function of radial distance from
the centre of the fiber
RI is uniform RI varies over the core
It undergoes sudden change at It varies smoothly and
cladding interface continuous over the core.
 Index Profiles
Step Index Fiber Graded Index Fiber

Uses Total Internal Reflection. Travels in oscillatory fashion. More

Less attenuation. attenuation.

Coupling efficiency (proportion of light Coupling efficiency is low

from source into fiber) is high (single
path)
Numerical aperture is same. Numerical aperture changes
Data rate is slow. continuously with distance from fiber
BW=10-20 MHz axis.
Higher data rate.
BW=1GHz.
Uses plastic or glass, uses LED as Only glass is used.uses LED or Laser as
source. Used for LAN. source. Used for LAN & WAN.
 Single mode step Index Fiber:
 Core size is small. Typical core sizes are 2 to 15 μm.
 Only one mode can propagate through the cable.
 Single mode fiber is also known as fundamental or mono mode fiber.
 Does not suffer from mode delay differences(Dispersion)

Multimode step Index Fiber:

 Core size is small. Typical core sizes are 50 to 1000 μm.
 Multiple modes can propagate through the cable.
 Suffer from mode delay differences(Dispersion).Txn BW is low

Graded-Index Multimode Fiber:

 Core refractive index diminishes gradually from the center axis out toward the cladding.
 The core size is varying from 50 to 100 μm.
 The light ray is propagated through the refraction
 The light ray enters the fiber at many different angles
 Minimizing dispersion losses, because all the signals arrive at same time.
 Easy to couple the light into the fiber and have large bandwidth.
52
Based on the index profile the optical fibers are two types

 Step-index fibers
 Graded-index
⚫ Step-index fibers: Index of refraction changes radically between the core and
the cladding.

⚫ Graded-index fibers: The index of refraction gradually decreases away

from the center of the core.
⚫ Graded-index fiber has less dispersion than a multimode step- index fiber

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 Single mode fiber structure
Single-mode fibers can be constructed by
 Core diameter be a few wavelengths(usually 8-12)
 Small index difference
 Large variations in values of the physical size of core a and index difference ∆.
∆=(n1 - n2)/n1
 V -Number< 2.4
 The V number, also known as the normalized frequency, is a parameter that describes
the properties of an optical fiber. It's used to calculate the number of modes in a fiber,
the mode cut-off conditions, and propagation constants.
 V < 2.405 indicates single mode fiber, else multimode fiber.
 V=(2 Π/ λ).a. ∆
 Example: For typical single-mode fiber a=3μm, NA=0.1 and λ=0.8μm

54
Yields V=2.356
 Continued……
Mode Field Diameter
 In single mode fibers geometric distribution of light is important to predict the
performance of fiber.
 The mode filed diameter is fundamental parameter of a single mode fiber.
 This parameter gives the information of width of optical power distribution in single mode
fiber.
 For a Gaussian distribution, the MFD is given by the 1/e2 width of the optical power
 The Gaussian distribution
E ( r ) = E0 exp(- r /W 0 )

E0=Field at zero
55
radius

W0=Width of electric field

 Continued…..

56
 Continued…..
 The spot size W0 is gives as –
MFD = 2 W0
Propagation modes in single mode fiber:
 In single mode amplifier, there are two independent degenerate modes.
 Horizontal mode ( E field is parallel to the fiber axis)
 Vertical mode ( E filed is perpendicular to the fiber axis)
 These modes very similar , but their polarization planes are orthogonal
 Constitute fundamental HE11 mode
 Modes propagate with equal propagation constants
(Kx=Ky)

57
 Continued…..

 The modes propagating with different phase velocities and the

difference between their effective refractive indices is called the
fiber birefringence.
Bf=ny-nx

 Similarly ,the birefringence may define as

β=k0(ny-nx)
34 k0=2π/λ is the free space propagation
 Graded –Index fiber Structure
 The index of refraction gradually decreases with increasing radial distance r from center,
but constant in the cladding.

 Refractive index variation in core

α Indicates shape of index profile.

 Index difference

59
 Graded –Index fiber Structure

 The total numerical aperture is (Overall light gathering capability)

 Axial numerical aperture is define as (light gathering along the axis)

60
 Cut off Wavelength in single mode fiber
 The cutoff wavelength (λc​) in a single-mode fiber (SMF) is the
wavelength above which the fiber supports only the fundamental
mode (LP₀₁) and no higher-order modes.

 It is obtained by V number .

 V= ⋅
(2πa/ λ)​NA

 Below λc​fiber behaves as multimode

 Above λc​ fiber behaves as single mode ensuring minimal intermodal

dispersion.
 Mode Field Diameter in single mode fiber
 The mode field diameter (MFD) in a single-mode fiber (SMF)
refers to the effective diameter of the optical power distribution in
the fundamental mode. It is larger than the core diameter due to
the evanescent field extending into the cladding.

 MFD≈2w0

W0=Width of electric field

distribution

 MFD≈2×λ/π​×((​)
 Effective refractive index in single mode fiber
 The effective refractive index (neff​) represents the refractive index
that an optical mode experiences as it propagates through the
fiber. It accounts for the combined effect of the core and the
cladding, considering that part of the mode extends beyond the
core into the cladding.

 neff​=β​/ k0​

Β is the propagation constant.

 k0​ is the wavenumber in the space given by 2 π/λ.

 n2​<neff​<n1​
 Fiber Optic Materials (Glass/Plastic
 Glass Optical Fibers (GOF)

• Silica Glass: The most common fiber material used in

telecommunications due to its low loss and high transparency in
infrared wavelengths.

• Halide Glass: Includes fluoride-based glasses (e.g., ZBLAN) with lower

attenuation in the mid-infrared spectrum but more fragile( easily
damaged) than silica.
• Active Glass: Glass fibers doped with rare-earth elements (e.g.,
Erbium, Ytterbium) used in amplifiers and lasers.

• Chalcogenide Glass: Sulfur, selenium, or tellurium-based glass fibers

suitable for mid-to-far infrared applications, including thermal imaging
and sensing
 Fiber Optic Materials
Plastic Optical Fibers (POF)

• Typically made from PMMA (Polymethyl methacrylate) or perfluorinated

polymers.

• Lower cost and higher flexibility but higher attenuation than glass fibers.

• Used in short-range communications, automotive, and consumer

electronics
Feature GOF POF

Material Silica-based (SiO₂) or specialty Polymethyl methacrylate

glasses (e.g., fluoride, (PMMA) or perfluorinated
chalcogenide) polymers
Core Diameter Small (typically 8–62.5 µm) Large (typically 0.2–1 mm)
Attenuation (Signal Loss) Low (0.2 dB/km @ 1550 nm) Higher (~150 dB/km @ 650
nm)
Transmission Distance Long distances (up to hundreds Short distances (up to 100 m)
of km
Bandwidth Very high (multi-GHz) Limited (~MHz range)
Flexibility Brittle, less flexible More flexible and robust
Cost Expensive Cheaper
Installation Requires precision alignment Easy to install and terminate
and splicing
Applications Telecommunications, data Consumer electronics, home
centers, medical (endoscopy), networks, automotive,
military, high-speed industrial lighting
networking