Cultural Taxonomies

What is a taxonomy?

A taxonomy is a classification system for

naming things according to their similarities
and differences.

Creating a taxonomy is a common research

goal in academic studies.
 Four taxonomies used to describe cultural variations
Edward Hall’s high- and low-context cultural patterns.
Geert Hofstede’s work-related value orientations
across cultures - power distance, uncertainty
avoidance, individualism-collectivism and masculinity-
femininity.
Michael Bond’s Confucian cultural patterns -
integration, human-heartedness, moral discipline and
Confucian work dynamism.
Shalom Schwartz’s value types – power, achievement,
hedonism, stimulation, tradition, conformity,
benevolence, security, universalism, self-direction –
viewed in terms of valence and intensity.
 1. Edward Hall
Hall (1977) divides cultures into two basic types
– high-context and low-context.
The high- and low-context cultural patterns are
specifically concerned with the messages and the amount
of information that is implied or shared.

In high-context cultures, speakers and writers rely

heavily on the wider context to communicate.

In low-context cultures, speakers and writers are more

direct and explicit when they communicate.

High-context cultures, e.g. China, Japan, Malaysia

and Mexico.
Low-context cultures, e.g. UK, Germany and Sweden.
 High-context cultures and Low-context cultures
High Context Low Context

Covert and implicit Overt and explicit

Messages internalized Messages plainly coded
Much nonverbal encoding Details verbalized
Reactions reserved Reactions on the
surface
Distinct in-groups & out-groups Flexible in-groups &
out- groups
Strong interpersonal bonds Fragile interpersonal bonds
Commitment high Commitment low
Time open and flexible Time highly organized
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mUCODUvKbzE
 High and Low Context Cultures
Hall looks specifically at the messages and the
amount of information that is implied or shared.
Messages in high-context cultures are almost
pre-programmed.
Very little interpretation of the message is left to
chance because people already know that in the
context of the current situation, the
communicative behaviours will have a specific
and particular message.
Example (The way of indicating ‘no’)
High Context Communication Low Context Communication
e.g. Japan e.g. U.S.

Japanese would say yes for no No means no.

but would indicate whether yes is
yes or really no by context, tone,
time taken to answer, and facial
and body expression.

AAJapanese
Japanesemanager
managerexplained
explainedhis
his
culture’s
culture’scommunication
communicationstyle
styleto
toan
an
American:
American: “We are a homogeneouspeople
“We are a homogeneous people
and
anddon’t
don’thave
haveto
tospeak
speakasasmuch
muchas asyou
youdo
do
here.
here. When
Whenwe wesay
sayone
oneword,
word,wewe
understand
understandten,
ten,but
buthere
hereyou
youhave
havetotosay
say
ten
tento
tounderstand
understandone.”
one.”

It’s
It’saamatter
matterofofcultural
culturalsensitivity.
sensitivity.As
Asan
anAmerican,
American,you
you
are
arevery
verydirect.
direct.We
WeJapanese
Japaneseare aremore
morepolite;
polite;we
wediscuss
discuss
matters
mattersindirectly.
indirectly.It’s
It’sour
ourcustom
customto tocommunicate
communicatethrough
through
mind-reading.
mind-reading.
Speech system
High context culture
Restricted code---favour implicitness,
relationship’s shared assumptions, intended
meaning
Low context culture
Elaborated code---favour directness, consider
high context communication a waste of time,
verbal elaboration is necessary due to fewer
shared assumptions
“Keep off the Grass” stated in China vs. the U.S.
Dialogue between a European American (low context
culture) and a Malaysian (high context culture)

Malaysian: Can I ask you a question?

European American: Yes of course.
Malaysian: Do you know what time it is?
European American: Yes, it’s two o’ clock.
Malaysian: Might you have a little soup left in the
pot?
European American: What? I don’t understand.
Malaysian: (becoming more explicit) I will be on
campus teaching until nine o’ clock
tonight, a very long day for any person, let
alone a hungry one!
European American: (finally getting the point) Would
you like me to drive you to a restaurant off
campus so you can have lunch?
Malaysian: What a very good idea you have!
 High and Low Context Cultures
High-context culture
Much more is taken for granted and assumed to be
shared, and so message does not have to be explicitly
and verbally transmitted. In fact, people will know what
the preferred interpretation of the messages is due to
the demands of the situation and the shared meanings of
the interactants.
Low-context cultures
people look for the meaning of others' behaviours in the
messages that are plainly and explicitly coded.

e.g. the French assume that the listener knows

everything. Therefore, they may think that Americans
think they are stupid because Americans will
habitually explain everything to their counterparts.
Q. 1
Give an example of high context culture and
low context culture. (Try to relate to your case
in the assignment)
Q.2 How would you feel?
a) The Shabby Guitar Player
You are in a restaurant having dinner with an
acquaintance. A shabby man with a guitar comes to your
table and offers to play. How do you feel about this?
1. This man is a beggar and should find a job.
2. This man is filthy and disgusting.
3. This man is to be pitited.
4. You do not know this man, and you have nothing to do
with him.
5. Could be interesting. Maybe he plays well.
6. The waiter should remove this man.
b) A Meeting in the Street
You are walking along the street in a twon that is not
your own. The street is quiet. Somebody crosses the
street and walks towards you. What do you think?
1. This person means to rob you.
2. This person means to ask you for directions.
3. This person means to have a chat with you.
4. This person might invite you to dinner.
5. This person is going to tell you that you are not
allowed to be here.
6. This person means to sell you something.
2. Geert Hofstede
Hofstede (1994, 1997, 2001) argues that
there are four cultural dimensions common
to all cultures and that it is possible to plot
particular cultures onto each of these
dimensions and so describe each culture’s
unique characteristics.
 Hofstede’s Dimensions
 Power distance – the degree to which a
culture believes that institutional power
should be distributed equally or unequally.
 Uncertainty avoidance – the extent to
which cultures prefer and can tolerate
ambiguity and change.
 Individualism-collectivism – the degree to
which a culture relies on and has allegiance
to the self or the group.
 Masculinity-femininity – the degree to
which a culture values assertiveness and the
acquisition of wealth or caring for others and
the quality of life.
Power Distance
Power distance refers to the degree to which
a culture believes that institutional power
should be distributed equally or unequally.
Power Distance
Large Power Distance Small Power Distance
High dependence needs Low dependence needs
Inequality accepted Inequality minimized
Hierarchy needed Hierarchy for convenience
Superiors often Superiors accessible
inaccessible All have equal rights
Power-holders have Change by evolution
privileges
Change by revolution
 Implications for the workplace
Large Power Distance Small Power Distance

 inequalities are expected and  people want to minimise

welcomed inequality
 centralisation is popular  decentralisation is popular
 there is a wide range of salaries  there is a narrow range of

salaries
 subordinates are not usually  subordinates expect to be

consulted consulted
 the ideal boss is an autocrat  the ideal boss is a democrat
 privileges for managers are  people disapprove of status

expected
Uncertainty Avoidance
Uncertainty avoidance (UAI) is about social
behaviours, risk-taking and conforming to
society.

UAI is about the extent to which cultures

prefer and can tolerate ambiguity and
change.
 Uncertainty Avoidance
Strong Uncertainty Avoidance Weak Uncertainty Avoidance

Anxiety, higher stress Relaxed, lower stress

Inner urge to work hard Hard work not a virtue
Showing emotions Emotions not shown
accepted Conflict and competition
Conflict is threatening seen as fair play
Need for consensus Acceptance of dissent
Need to avoid failure Willingness to take risks
Need for laws and rules There should be few
rules
 Characteristics of high-UAI cultures
high levels of anxiety
highly resistant to change
unwilling to take risks
perceive the uncertainties in life as a continuous threat
that must be overcome
find deviance threatening
tend to be conforming and conventional, and avoid
conflict, competition and dissent
as a result, develop many rules to control social
behaviours and adopt elaborate religious rituals that
have precise patterns

Low-UAI cultures will perceive people of high-UAI

cultures as too rigid and overly controlled, too
structured and uncompromising, and unwilling to
accept dissent.
 Implications for the workplace
Strong Uncertainty Avoidance Weak Uncertainty Avoidance

 uncertainty is a threat  uncertainty is a normal feature of

life
 people fear ambiguous situations  people are comfortable in

ambiguous situations
 there is an emotional need for rules  there should not be more rules than

necessary
 resistance to innovation  tolerance of innovative ideas

 motivation by security  motivation by achievement

Q.3 Try this
If you are working or doing business in a
country with a higher uncertainty
avoidance score than yourself……

If you are working or doing business in a

country with a lower uncertainty
avoidance score than yourself……
Individualism-Collectivism
Individualism-collectivism refers to the
degree to which a culture relies on and has
allegiance to the self or the group.
 Individualism-Collectivism
Individualism Collectivism
‘I’ conscious ‘We’ conscious
Autonomy of the individual Group takes care of and looks out for
Privacy is prioritised group members
Allegiance to the self rather than the Emphasis on belonging and
group relationships within the group over
Task- oriented tasks
Allegiance to the group rather than
More direct when communicating the self
Fulfil obligations to group rather than
achieve task outcome
More indirect when communicating
Examples
Individualist cultures (e.g. U.S.)
 When meeting a new person, you want to know what that
person does. You tend to define people by what they have
done, their achievements, what kind of car they drive, or
where they live.
More remote distant
Collective cultures (e.g. Columbia)
 Emphasize more on relationships among people and
interdependent activities, and suppress individual aims
for group’s welfare
 A student may study PhD in a distinguish university in the
U.S. and publish important books but when s/he returns
to Columbia, people to whom he is introduced will want to
know to whom he is related, who his or her family is
 Implications for the workplace
Individualism Collectivism
 identity is based on the individual  identity is based on the social network
to which you belong
 honest people speak their mind  harmony should be maintained
 communication is low context  communication is high context
 employer-employee relationships are  employer-employee relationships are

based on a contract like a family link

 decisions to employ people takes skills  decisions on employing people take the

into account group into account

 management is management of  management is management of groups

individuals
 task is more important than relationship  relationship is more important than task
Masculinity-Femininity

Masculinity-femininity refers to the degree to

which a culture values assertiveness and the
acquisition of wealth or caring for others and
the quality of life.
 Masculinity-Femininity
Masculinity Femininity
Ambitious and a need to excel Quality of life is serving others
Tendency to polarize Striving for consensus
Live in order to work Work in order to live
Big and fast are beautiful Small and slow are beautiful
Admiration for the achiever Sympathy for the unfortunate
Decisiveness Intuition
Preferred values of Masculinity

Competitiveness
Assertiveness
Acquisitiveness
Materialism
Achievement
 Implications for the workplace
Masculinity Femininity
 material success is a dominant  caring for others is a dominant
value value
 things are important  relationships are important
 people should be assertive  people should be modest
 women deal with feelings and men  both men and women deal with

deal with facts facts and feelings

 people live to work  people work to live
 managers are expected to be  managers aim for consensus

decisive
 competition and performance are  equality, solidarity, and quality are
important at work important at work
 conflicts are fought out  conflicts are solved by compromise
Q.4
If you are working or doing business in a
country with a higher masculinity score than
yourself then…

If you are working or doing business in a

country with a lower masculinity score than
yourself then…
How would you feel? Revisited
a) The Shabby Guitar Player
You are in a restaurant having dinner with an acquaintance. A
shabby man with a guitar comes to your table and offers to play.
How do you feel about this?

1. This man is a beggar and should find a job.

This is a masculine point of view; the man is a loser.

2. This man is filthy and disgusting.

People from uncertainty avoiding cultures would feel this way.
They might even be afraid of contracting a disease from the man.

3. This man is to be pitited.

People from feminine societies might feel this way.
4. You do not know this man, and you have nothing to
do with him.
If you are from a collectivist society and belong to a group to
which the newcomer does not belong, then you might feel
this way. But you might also feel this way if you are from an
individualist, masculine culture. In that case you might not
feel any moral obligation to care for a loser who caused his
own misfortune and is nothing to you.

5. Could be interesting. Maybe he plays well.

This is how people from uncertainty tolerant cultures might
feel. A novel, ambiguous situation piques their curiosity.

6. The waiter should remove this man.

People from cultures high on power distance might feel this
way. Or it might indicate strong uncertainty avoidance: the
man is out of place in a restaurant and that is unsettling.
b) A Meeting in the Street
You are walking along the street in a town that is not your own. The street is
quiet. Somebody crosses the street and walks towards you. What do you think?

1. This person means to rob you.

People from a masculine culture might feel this way. In a masculine culture,
strangers don’t trust each other. If this culture is also strongly uncertainty
avoiding, this would add to the distrust.

2. This person means to ask you for directions.

In feminine countries, people tend to trust strangers, and they might feel this
way.

3. This person means to have a chat with you.

This is an uncertainty tolerant point of view. It might also speak of collectivism:
taking time for socialising.
4. This person might invite you to dinner.
A person from a collectivist culture might have this
expectation if the person has reason to expect that he or she
will be considered part of the ingroup.

5. This person is going to tell you that you are not

allowed to be here.
Somebody from an uncertainty avoiding country might think
this, particularly if power distance is also large.

6. This person means to sell you something.

This might occur in many countries, but it is more likely to
happen in collectivist nations, where personal contact and
trade are more mixed than in individualist ones.
Try this
Q.2 Describe how you think each of
Hofstede’s four dimensions is displayed in
your own culture.
Power distance
Uncertainty avoidance
Individualism-collectivism
Masculinity-feminity
3. Michael Bond

Bond (1987, and

Hofstede and Bond,
1988) used
Hofstede’s
framework to
develop cultural
‘dimensions’ to
better describe
Confucian-based
cultures.
Bond’s Dimensions
 Integration – a culture’s social order and stability
are based on unequal relationships (The Five
Relations 五輪 ).
 For example, ruler-subject, father-son, husband-wife,
older brother-younger brother, senior friend-junior
friend. The senior of the two provides protection and
consideration while the junior owes the senior respect
and obedience.

 Human-heartedness – a preference for gentleness

and compassion. This virtuous behaviour towards
others consists of ‘not treating others as one would
not like to be treated oneself’ ( 己所不欲，勿施于人 ).
Bond’s Dimensions
Moral discipline – a sense of restraint and
moderation. A person is not primarily an individual
but a member of a family. Children must learn to
restrain themselves to overcome their individuality
so as to maintain harmony in the family (one’s
thoughts however remain free). Harmony is
achieved through the maintenance of everybody’s
face (i.e. dignity, self-respect and prestige).

Confucian work dynamism – a long-term

orientation towards life and work. People should be
skilled, educated, hardworking, thrifty, modest,
patient and persevering.
Bond versus Hofstede
Bond Hofstede
Integration Power distance
Human-heartedness Masculinity-femininity
Moral discipline Individualism-collectivism
Uncertainty-avoidance
Confucian dynamism
Confucian Dynamism

The dimension of Confucian dynamism

(Hofstede and Bond, 1988) was produced to
help to explain the rapid economic
development of many Asian countries.

It refers to the selective promotion of

particular sets of ethics found in Confucian
teachings, particularly thrift, perseverance,
a sense of shame, and following a hierarchy
(but not so much tradition and protecting
face).
 Confucian Dynamism
Low Confucian Dynamism High Confucian Dynamism

Absolute truth Many truths (time, context)

Conventional/traditional Pragmatic
Short-term orientation Long-term orientation
Concern for stability Acceptance of change
Quick results expected Perseverance
Spending for today Thrift for investment
 Confucian Dynamism
The Confucian tradition is said to encourage
people
to believe that:

innate ability does not determine how much

success a person can achieve
with effort and self-discipline, every person can
achieve her or his goals
failure can be retrieved by making more effort
obedience and proper conduct are more
important than independence and creativity
 Application of Hofstede’s Model
to Management

Bureaucracy as used by sociologists (after

the work of Weber) refers to the processes
by which modern organisations operate.

Hofstede shows how bureaucratic types

vary across cultures and identifies four
types of bureaucracy based on variations
in power difference and the need to
avoid uncertainty (cited in Mead 1998).
 Full Bureaucracy
Any organisation sets up bureaucratic rules and
procedures in order to make the behaviour of its
members more predictable and to reduce
uncertainties.

Consequently, a culture that has most need for

these rules (i.e. a culture with wide power
distances and a strong need to avoid uncertainties)
is termed by Hofstede a ‘full bureaucracy’.
Full Bureaucracy
LUA

LPD HPD
FULL BUREAUCRACY
Wide power distances
Strong needs to avoid uncertainty
HUA
 Full Bureaucracy
Examples are France, Japan, Mediterranean and
Latin countries. In which, typically, members
respect unequal power distribution concentrated in
the higher echelons and they have a strong need to
avoid ambiguous procedures.
In this kind of organisation, functions are tightly
distinguished, members attach most importance to
maintaining line authority and communication is
downward (i.e. ‘executive-led’).
Criticism of the senior management is not formally
facilitated, it is only possible using informal means.
 Market bureaucracy

This form of bureaucracy is the opposite of the

full bureaucracy and is found in cultures where
the desire for predictable behaviour and the
need to reduce uncertainties is very weak.

Such cultures have small power distances and

weak needs for uncertainty avoidance.
Market bureaucracy
LUA
MARKET BUREAUCRACY
Narrow power distances
Low need to avoid uncertainty

LPD HPD

HUA
 Market bureaucracy
Members of a market bureaucracy rely heavily
on personal relationships rather than their
relative positions in the bureaucratic hierarchy.

Members have relatively greater control over

how they might perform tasks.

Power in this form of bureaucracy is less

centralized and may come from a number of
sources.

Hofstede argues that Anglo and Scandinavian

countries and Holland most closely conform to
this type.
 Workflow Bureaucracy

This kind of bureaucracy emphasizes the

regulation of activities rather than personal
relationships.

The need to avoid uncertainty is relatively much

stronger and requirements for job performance
are tightly specified, but power differences are
narrow.
Workflow Bureaucracy
LUA

LPD HPD

WORKFLOW BUREAUCRACY
Narrow power distances
High Needs to avoid uncertainty
HUA
Workflow Bureaucracy

Cultures tending to conform to the workflow

bureaucracy include Germany, Austria,
Switzerland, Finland and Israel.
 Personnel Bureaucracy
This kind of bureaucracy is found in collectivist
cultures in which power distances are great.
The organisation is typically built around a
strong leader who controls through direct
supervision.
Authority is associated with the leader rather
than with the organisation or her/his rank unlike
the full bureaucracy.
Personnel Bureaucracy
LUA

PERSONNEL BUREAUCRACY
Wide power distances
Low needs to avoid uncertainty
LPD HPD

HUA
 Personnel Bureaucracy
Subordinates may be unwilling to take
responsibility because the culture works against
them stepping outside their social roles
irrespective of their technical competence.
The personnel bureaucracy is typical of Indian
and Chinese family businesses throughout South
East Asia.
These companies are often started by an
individual who then appoints members of her/his
extended family in the senior posts and
‘outsiders’ are employed at lower levels.
Personnel Bureaucracy
Family and company responsibilities are
paralleled with the owner receiving both respect
and loyalty as family and company head.
This kind of bureaucracy can be efficient as long
as there is harmony within the family.
When personal loyalties to superiors are strong,
and job specifications are loose, subordinates
interpret their roles implicitly from observing
their superiors’ needs.
 4. Shalom Schwartz
According to Schwartz et al. (1997), from culture to
culture, values are different in terms of their valence and
intensity.

Valence is whether the value is viewed as being negative

or positive.
Intensity refers to the strength, or importance, of the
value in the culture.
For example, individualism in the USA is positively
valenced and is a value held with strong intensity. In
other cultures the valence and intensity towards
individualism can be very different.
Similarly, in Japan, for example, respect for elders is
positively valenced and is a value held with strong
intensity, but this is not the case in North American
culture.
 Schwartz’s value types
characteristic representative value

social status and prestige, control social power,

power or dominance over people and
resources wealth, authority

personal success through successful,

achievement demonstrating competence
according to social standards capable, ambitious,
influential
pleasure or sensuous gratification pleasure, enjoying
hedonism for oneself
life
 characteristic representative value

excitement, novelty, and daring, a varied life, an

stimulation challenge in life
exciting life
independence in thought and creativity, freedom,
self-direction action – choosing, creating,
and exploring curious, independent,
choosing own goals
understanding, appreciation, social justice, world at
universalism tolerance, and protection for
the welfare of all people and peace, broadminded,
for nature equality, wisdom, unity
with nature, a world of
beauty, protecting the
environment
 characteristic representative value
preservation and enhancement helpful, forgiving,
benevolence of the welfare of people with
whom one is in frequent honest, loyal, true
personal contact friendship
respect, commitment, and accepting my portion in
tradition acceptance of the customs and
ideas that one’s culture and life, respect for
religion impose on the self tradition, humble,
moderate
restraint of actions, obedient, self-discipline,
conformity inclinations, and impulses likely
to upset or harm others and politeness, honoring
violate social expectations or parents and elders
norms

safety, harmony, and stability family and national

security of society, of relationships, and
of the self security, social order,
reciprocation of favours
Relationships among Schwartz’s* value types
*(Schwartz et al., 1997: 8)

1 What cultural messages do the

proposed changes in terms and
conditions send?

2 Do the cultural messages match

local cultural preferences? If not,
what do you recommend should be
done to improve intercultural
communication?