Delays

Transmission Delay
• The time taken to transmit a packet from the host to the
transmission medium is called Transmission delay.
• For example, if bandwidth is 1 bps (every second 1 bit
can be transmitted onto the transmission medium) and
data size is 20 bits then what is the transmission delay?
If in one second, 1 bit can be transmitted. To transmit
20 bits, 20 seconds would be required.
• Let B bps is the bandwidth and L bit is the size of the
data then transmission delay is,
Tt = L(size of the data)/B(bandwidth)
• For example, if bandwidth is 1 bps (every second 1 bit
can be transmitted onto the transmission medium) and
data size is 20 bits then what is the transmission delay?
If in one second, 1 bit can be transmitted. To transmit
20 bits, 20 seconds would be required.
• Let B bps is the bandwidth and L bit is the size of the
data then transmission delay is,
Tt = L(size of the data)/B(bandwidth)

• L=1 Kb=2^10bits B=1000bps

• Tt=L/B 2^10bits/ 1000bps = 1024/1000 = 1.024 sec
Propagation delay:
• After the packet is transmitted to the transmission
medium, it has to go through the medium to reach the
destination. Hence the time taken by the last bit of the
packet to reach the destination is called propagation
delay.
Factors affecting propagation delay:

• Distance – It takes more time to reach the destination if

the distance of the medium is longer.
• Velocity – If the velocity(speed) of the medium is higher,
the packet will be received faster.
• Tp = Distance / Velocity
Tp = Distance / Velocity

D =1km = 1000 m
Velocity = 2.1 X 10^8 m/s

Tp = 1000 m / 2.1 X 10^8 m/s = 500*10^-8 =

5*10^-6=5microsec

Velocity =3 X 10^8 m/s (for air) Velocity= 2.1 X 10^8 m/s (for optical fibre)
This delay depends upon the following factors:
• If there are multiple active sessions, the delay will
become significant.
• Increasing bandwidth decreases transmission delay.
• MAC protocol largely influences the delay if the link is
shared among multiple devices.
• Sending and receiving a packet involves a context
switch in the operating system, which takes a finite
time.
Computer Network Architecture

The two types of

network
architectures are
used:

•Peer-To-Peer network
•Client/Server
network
Peer-To-Peer network
• Peer-To-Peer network is a network in which all the
computers are linked together with equal privilege and
responsibilities for processing the data.
• Peer-To-Peer network is useful for small environments,
usually up to 10 computers.
• Peer-To-Peer network has no dedicated server.
• Special permissions are assigned to each computer for
sharing the resources, but this can lead to a problem if
the computer with the resource is down.
Peer-To-Peer network
Client/Server Network
• Client/Server network is a network model designed for the end users
called clients, to access the resources such as songs, video, etc. from a
central computer known as Server.
• The central controller is known as a server while all other computers in
the network are called clients.
• A server performs all the major operations such as security and network
management.
• A server is responsible for managing all the resources such as files,
directories, printer, etc.
• All the clients communicate with each other through a server. For
example, if client1 wants to send some data to client 2, then it first
sends the request to the server for the permission. The server sends the
response to the client 1 to initiate its communication with the client 2.
Client/Server Network
High-Level Data Link
Control (HDLC)
High-Level Data Link Control
(HDLC)
⚫HDLC was defined by ISO for use on both point- to-point and
multipoint data links.
⚫It supports full-duplex communication

Broadly HDLC features are as follows:

⚫Reliable protocol
⚫ selective repeat or go-back-N
⚫Full-duplex communication
⚫ receive and transmit at the same time
⚫Bit-oriented protocol
⚫ use bits to stuff flags occurring in data . i.e, it does NOT recognize or
interpret byte value
⚫Flow control
⚫ adjust window size based on receiver capability
⚫Uses physical layer clocking and synchronization to
send
12/21/20 and receive frames
13
 HDLC
Overview
⚫ Defines three types of stations
⚫ Primary
⚫ Secondary
⚫ Combined
⚫ Defines three types of data
transfer mode
⚫ Normal Response mode(NRM)
⚫ Asynchronous Response
mode(ARM)
⚫ Asynchronous Balanced
mode(ABM)
⚫ Three types of frames
⚫ Unnumbered
12/21/20 ⚫ information
13
 HDLC Defines three types of
stations

STATION
S

PRIMAR SECONDA COMBINE

Y RY D
STATIO STATION STATION
N
12/21/20
13
HDL
C⚫The three stations are :
⚫Primary station
⚫ Has the responsibility of controlling the operation of data
fl ow .
⚫ Handles error recovery
⚫ Frames issued by the primary station are called commands.

⚫Secondary station,
⚫ Operates under the control of the primary station.
⚫ Frames issued by a secondary station are called responses.
⚫ The primary station maintains a separate logical link with each
secondary station.

⚫Combined station,
⚫ Acts as both as primary and secondary station.

12/21/20
13
HDLC Defines three types of data
transfer mode

DATA
TRANSFE
R MODES

NORMAL ASYNCHRONO ASYNCHRONO

RESPONSE US RESPONSE US BALANCE
MODE(ARM) MODE (ABM)
MODE(NR
M)
12/21/20
13
HDL
C⚫The three modes of data transfer operations are
⚫ Normal Response Mode (NRM)
⚫ station configuration is unbalanced
⚫ Secondary station can send ONLY when the primary station instruct it to do so
⚫ Two common configurations
- Point-to-Point link (one primary station and one secondary station)
- Multipoint link (the primary station maintain different sessions with different
secondary stations)
⚫ Asynchronous Response Mode (ARM)
⚫ More independent secondary station
⚫ Can send data or control information without explicit permission to do so (note
that it is still can not send commands)
⚫Asynchronous Balanced Mode (ABM)
⚫ The configuration is balanced.
⚫ Mainly used in point-to-point links, for communication between combined stations
⚫ Either stations can send data, control information and commands
12/21/20
13
 Figure 11.25 Normal response mode

11.22
Asynchronous Response Mode (ARM)
 Figure 11.26 Asynchronous balanced mode

11.24
 HDLC : types of frames
Each type of frame serves as an HDLC defines three types of frames:
envelope for the transmission of a • information frames(I-frames),
different type of message. • supervisory frames (S-frames),
• unnumbered frames (U-frames).
I-frames are used to transport
user data and control information
relating to user
data(piggybacking).

S-frames are used only to

transport control information.

U-frames are reserved for system

management. Information carried
by U-frames is intended for
managing the link itself.
12/21/20
13
HDLC frames

11.27
HDLC - I Frame
⚫ Flag: 01111110- indicates start and ending of frames

⚫ Address field: The second field of an HDLC frame contains the address of the
secondary station.
⚫ When a primary station is sending a frame, the address field contains
the receiver identity
⚫ If a secondary station is sending the frame, the address field contains
the sender identity
⚫ In some cases, it contains a group or broadcast address

⚫ Control field. The control field is a 1- or 2-byte segment of the

frame used for flow and error control.
Information field. The information field contains the user's data
from the network layer or management information.
⚫ Frame check sequence (FCS): 16-bit CRC using generating
polynomial G(x) = x16 + x12 + x5 + 1

12/21/20
13
Figure 11.28 Control field format for the different frame types

⚫In I-frames, N(s) is the

sequence number of the frame
being sent, and N(r) is the
sequence number of the frame
being expected.
⚫ The P/F bit, known as the
poll/final bit, is used with
different meaning in different
contexts.

11.29
HDLC frames

11.30
 HDLC frame
structure

(a)
Frame
Format

(b) Control field

format

12/21/20
13
HDL
CHDLC defines three types of frames:
• information frames(I-frames)Information frames, which carry
actual information. Such frames can piggyback ACK in case of ABM
• supervisory frames (S-frames), Supervisory frames, which
are used for error and flow control purposes and hence
contain send and receive sequence numbers
• unnumbered frames (U-frames)Unnumbered frames, used in
link setup and disconnection, and hence do not contain ACK.

12/21/20
13
Control Field
Control Field for I-Frames
I-frames are designed to carry user data from the network layer. In addition, they can include
flow and error control information (piggybacking).

The subfields in the control field are used to define these functions.

The first bit defines the type. If the first bit of the control field is 0, this means the frame is an
I-frame.

The next 3 bits, called N(S), define the sequence number of the frame. Note that with 3 bits,
we can define a sequence number between 0 and 7; but in the extension format, in which the
control field is 2 bytes, this field is larger.
The last 3 bits, called N(R), correspond to the acknowledgment number when piggybacking is
used.
The single bit between N(S) and N(R) is called the P/F bit. The P/F field is a single bit with a
dual purpose. It has meaning only when it is set (bit = 1) and can mean poll or final.
It means poll when the frame is sent by a primary station to a secondary (when the address
field contains the address of the receiver).
It means final when the frame is sent by a secondary to a primary (when the address field
contains the address of the sender)
Control Field for S-
Frames

⚫ Supervisory frames are used for flow and error control whenever piggybacking is either impossible or
inappropriate
⚫ S-frames do not have information fields. If the first 2 bits of the control field is 10, this means the
frame is an S-frame.
⚫ The last 3 bits, called N(R), corresponds to the acknowledgment number (ACK) or negative
acknowledgment number (NAK) depending on the type of S-frame. The 2 bits called code is used to
define the type of S-frame itself. With 2 bits, we can
have four types of S-frames

⚫There are four different supervisory frames

⚫ SS=00, Receiver Ready (RR), and N(R) ACKs all frames received up to
and including the one with sequence number N(R) - 1
⚫ SS=10, Receiver Not Ready (RNR), and N(R) has the same meaning
as above
⚫ SS=01, Reject; all frames with sequence number N(R) or higher are
rejected, which in turns ACKs frames with sequence number N(R) -1 or
13 lower.
12/21/20
Control Field for U Frames

Unnumbered frames are used to exchange session management and control information
between connected devices.

Unlike S-frames, U-frames contain an information field, but one used for system management
information, not user data. As with S-frames, however, much of the information carried by U-
frames is contained in codes included in the control field.
U-frame codes are divided into two sections:
• 2-bit prefix before the P/F bit and a 3-bit suffix after the P/F bit. Together, these two
segments (5 bits) can be used to create up to 32 different types of U-frames.
 Review of Link Layer

• PPP
• Framing
• Error control
• Reliability

• HDLC
• Connection management
• M edium access control
• Switching

Services Protocols

12/21/2013
Point-to-Point
Protocol
Point-to-Point Link
 Point-to-Point Link
PPP is a byte-oriented protocol
PPP provides several services:
1. PPP defines the format of the frame to be exchanged
between devices.
2. PPP defines how two devices can negotiate the
establishment of the link and the exchange of data.
3. PPP defines how network layer data are encapsulated
in the data link frame.
4. PPP defines how two devices can authenticate each
other.
5. PPP provides multiple network layer services supporting
a variety of network layer protocols.
6. PPP provides connections over multiple links.
7. PPP provides network address configuration. This is
particularly useful when a home user needs a temporary
Several services are missing:
I. PPP does not provide flow control. A sender can
send several frames one after another with no
concern about overwhelming the receiver.
2. PPP has a very simple mechanism for error control.
A CRC field is used to detect errors. If the frame is
corrupted, it is silently discarded; the upper-layer
protocol needs to take care of the problem. Lack of
error control and sequence numbering may cause a
packet to be received out of order.
3. PPP does not provide a sophisticated addressing
mechanism to handle frames in a multipoint
configuration.
PPP Layers
PPP Frames

Flag. A PPP frame starts and ends with a 1-byte flag with
the bit pattern 01111110. Although this pattern is the
same as that used in HDLC, there is a big difference. PPP
is a byte-oriented protocol; HDLC is a bit-oriented
protocol. The flag is treated as a byte.

o Address. The address field in this protocol is a constant

value and set to 11111111 (broadcast address). During
negotiation (discussed later), the two parties may agree
to omit this byte.
o Control. This field is set to the constant value
11000000 (imitating unnumbered frames in HDLC).
PPP does not provide any flow control. Error control is
also limited to error detection. This means that this
field is not needed at all, and again, the two parties
can agree, during negotiation, to omit this byte.

o Protocol. The protocol field defines what is being

carried in the data field: either user data or other
information. This field is by default 2 bytes long, but
the two parties can agree to use only 1 byte.
o Payload field. This field carries either the user data
or other information. The data field is a sequence of
bytes with the default of a maximum of 1500 bytes;
but this can be changed during negotiation. The data
field is byte stuffed if the flag byte pattern appears in
this field. Because there is no field defining the size
of the data field, padding is needed if the size is less
than the maximum default value or the maximum
negotiated value.

o FCS. The frame check sequence (FCS) is simply a 2-

byte or 4-byte standard CRC
Transition Phases

Dead. In the dead phase the link is not being used. There is no
active carrier (at the physical layer) and the line is quiet.
Establish. When one of the nodes starts the communication, the
connection goes into this phase. In this phase, options are negotiated
between the two parties. If the negotiation is successful, the system
goes to the authentication phase (if authentication is required) or
directly to the networking phase. The link control protocol packets are
used for this purpose. Several packets may be exchanged here.
Authenticate. The authentication phase is optional; the two nodes may
decide, during the establishment phase, not to skip this phase. However, if
they decide to proceed with authentication, they send several
authentication packets. If the result is successful, the connection goes to
the networking phase; otherwise, it goes to the termination phase.
Network. In the network phase, negotiation for the network layer
protocols takes place. PPP specifies that two nodes establish a
network layer agreement before data at the network layer can be
exchanged. The reason is that PPP supports multiple protocols at the
network layer. If a node is running multiple protocols simultaneously
at the network layer, the receiving node needs to know which
Open. In the open phase, data transfer takes place. When a
connection reaches this phase, the exchange of data packets
can be started. The connection remains in this phase until one
of the endpoints wants to terminate the connection.
Terminate. In the termination phase the connection is
terminated. Several packets are exchanged between the two
ends for house cleaning and closing the link
Multiplexing in PPP
LCP Packet Encapsulated in a Frame

The Link Control Protocol (LCP) is responsible for establishing,

maintaining, configuring, and terminating links.
All LCP packets are carried in the payload field of the PPP frame with
the protocol
field set to C021 in hexadecimal.
 LCP
packets

First four packet types, is used for link configuration during the
establish phase.
Packet types 5 and 6, is used for link termination during the
termination phase.
Last five packets are used for link monitoring and debugging .
The ID field holds a value that matches a request with a reply.
One endpoint inserts a value in this field, which will be copied
into the reply packet.

The length field defines the length of the entire LCP packet.

The information field contains information, such as options,

needed for some LCP packets.
 Common options
The information field contains information,
such as options, needed for some LCP packets.
In this case, the information field is divided into
three fields: option type, option length, and
option data.
Multiplexing in PPP
 Authentication Protocols
PAP
Authentication means validating the identity of a user who needs to
access a set of resources. PPP has created two protocols for
authentication:
• Password Authentication Protocol(PAP)
• Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol(CHAP)
 PAP Packets: The Password Authentication Protocol (PAP) is a
simple authentication procedure with a two-step process:
1. The user who wants to access a system sends an authentication
identification
(usually the username) and a password.
2. The system checks the validity of the identification and password and
either accepts or denies connection

The first packet is used by the user to send the username and password. The
second is used by the system to allow access. The third is used by the system
CHAP: is a three-way hand-shaking authentication protocol that provides
greater security than PAP. In this method, the password is kept secret; it is
never sent online.
CHAP Packets: There are four CHAP packets: challenge, response,
success, and failure.
Network Control Protocols
IPCP Packet Encapsulated in PPP Frame
This protocol configures the link used to carry IP packets on
the Internet.
Code value for IPCP
packets
IP datagram encapsulated in a PPP
frame
Multilink PPP: PPP was originally designed for a single-channel
point-to-point physical link. The availability of multiple channels in a single
point-to-point link motivated the development of Multilink PPP. In this case, a
logical PPP frame is divided into several actual PPP frames. A segment of the
logical frame is carried in the payload of an actual PPP frame. To show that the
actual PPP frame is carrying a fragment of a logical PPP frame, the protocol
field is set to Ox003d.
An Example
An Example (Contd.)
An Example
(one slide)
LAN Standards and FDDI

69
 IEEE STANDARDS
 In 1985, the Computer Society of the IEEE started a project, called Project 802, to set
standards to enable intercommunication among equipment from a variety of
manufacturers.
 Project 802 is a way of specifying functions of the physical layer and the data link layer of
major LAN protocols.

 Some LAN network examples: Ethernet, Token Ring, Token Bus, FDDI, and ATM
LAN.

70
IEEE standard for LANs

71
 STANDARD ETHERNET
 The original Ethernet was created in 1976 at Xerox’s Palo Alto Research Center (PARC).
Since then, it has gone through four generations.

72
ETHERNET
• One of the most widely used Wired LAN technologies.
• Operates in the data link layer and the physical layer.
• Family of networking technologies that are defined in the IEEE 802.2 and 802.3 standards.
• Supports data bandwidths of 10, 100, 1000, 10,000, 40,000, and 100,000 Mbps (100 Gbps).

Ethernet Standards
• Define Layer 2 protocols and Layer 1 technologies
• Two separate sublayers of the data link layer to operate Logical link control (LLC) and the
MAC sublayers.
 802.3 MAC frame

Ethernet does not provide any mechanism for acknowledging received

frames, making it what is known as an unreliable medium.

74
 802.3 MAC frame
•PREAMBLE – Ethernet frame starts with 7-Bytes Preamble. This is a pattern of
alternative 0’s and 1’s which indicates starting of the frame and allow sender
and receiver to establish bit synchronization. Initially, PRE (Preamble) was
introduced to allow for the loss of a few bits due to signal delays. But today’s
high-speed Ethernet don’t need Preamble to protect the frame bits.
PRE (Preamble) indicates the receiver that frame is coming and allow the
receiver to lock onto the data stream before the actual frame begins.
•Start of frame delimiter (SFD) – This is a 1-Byte field which is always set to
10101011. SFD indicates that upcoming bits are starting of the frame, which is
the destination address. Sometimes SFD is considered the part of PRE, this is
the reason Preamble is described as 8 Bytes in many places. The SFD warns
station or stations that this is the last chance for synchronization.
•Destination Address – This is 6-Byte field which contains the MAC address
of machine for which data is destined.
•Source Address – This is a 6-Byte field which contains the MAC address of
•Length – Length is a 2-Byte field, which indicates the length of entire
Ethernet frame. This 16-bit field can hold the length value between 0 to
65534, but length cannot be larger than 1500 because of some own
limitations of Ethernet.
•Data – This is the place where actual data is inserted, also known
as Payload. Both IP header and data will be inserted here if Internet
Protocol is used over Ethernet. The maximum data present may be as long
as 1500 Bytes. In case data length is less than minimum length i.e. 46
bytes, then padding 0’s is added to meet the minimum possible length.
•Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) – CRC is 4 Byte field. This field
contains a 32-bits hash code of data, which is generated over the
Destination Address, Source Address, Length, and Data field. If the
checksum computed by destination is not the same as sent checksum
value, data received is corrupted.
Minimum and maximum lengths

77
 Ethernet address in hexadecimal notation
Each station on an Ethernet network (such as a PC, workstation, or printer)
has its own
network interface card (NIC). The NIC fits inside the station and provides the
station
with a 6-byte physical address

78
 Unicast and multicast addresses
 The least significant bit of the first byte defines the type of address. If the bit is 0, the
address is unicast; otherwise, it is multicast.
 The broadcast destination address is a special case of the multicast address in which all
bits are 1s.(48 1’s)

79
 Example 13.1

Define the type of the following destination addresses:

a. 4A:30:10:21:10:1A b. 47:20:1B:2E:08:EE
c. FF:FF:FF:FF:FF:FF
Solution
To find the type of the address, we need to look at the
second hexadecimal digit from the left. If it is even, the
address is unicast. If it is odd, the address is multicast. If
all digits are F’s, the address is broadcast. Therefore, we
have the following:
a. This is a unicast address because A in binary is 1010.
b. This is a multicast address because 7 in binary is 0111.
c. This is a broadcast address because all digits are F’s.
 Categories of Standard Ethernet
Access Method:
CSMA/CD
Standard
Ethernet uses
1-persistent
CSMA/CD

81
 FAST ETHERNET
 Fast Ethernet was designed to compete with LAN protocols such as FDDI or Fiber
Channel.
 IEEE created Fast Ethernet under the name 802.3u.
 Fast Ethernet is backward-compatible with Standard Ethernet, but it can transmit data 10
times faster at a rate of 100 Mbps.
 Upgrade the data rate to 100 Mbps.
 Make it compatible with Standard Ethernet.
 Keep the same 48-bit address.
 Keep the same frame format.
 Keep the same minimum and maximum frame lengths

82
Fast Ethernet implementations

83
 GIGABIT ETHERNET
 The need for an even higher data rate resulted in the design of the Gigabit Ethernet
protocol (1000 Mbps).
 The IEEE committee calls the standard 802.3z.

• Upgrade the data rate to 1 Gbps.

• Make it compatible with Standard or Fast Ethernet.
Use the same 48-bit address.
• Use the same frame format.
• Keep the same minimum and maximum frame lengths.
• To support auto negotiation as defined in Fast Ethernet

84
Gigabit Ethernet implementations

85
Summary of Gigabit Ethernet implementations

86
Summary of Ten-Gigabit Ethernet implementations

87
FIBER DISTRIBUTED DATA INTERFACE
(FDDI)

88
 FDDI
 Shared Media Network Like Ethernet (IEEE 802.3) & IBM Token Ring(IEEE 802.5)
 100 Mbps Speed
 Runs On Optical Fiber
 American National Standards Institute (ANSI) Standard
 Token Ring Network Like IEEE 802.5
 Token: A Special Sequence of Bits
 Token Circulates Around The Ring
 A Station Removes The Token From Ring Before Transmission
 After Transmission, The Station Returns The Token To The Ring
 Collisions Are Prevented As There Is Only One Token In The Ring

89
TOKEN RING NETWORK

90
 FDDI LIMITATIONS
 HIGH COST OF OPTICAL COMPONENTS REQUIRED FOR
TRANSMISSION/RECEPTION OF SIGNALS (ESPECIALLY FOR SINGLE MODE
FIBER NETWORKS)
 MORE COMPLEX TO IMPLEMENT THAN EXISTING LOW SPEED LAN
TECHNOLOGIES SUCH AS IEEE 802.3 AND IEEE 802.5

91
 APPLICATIONS OF FDDI
 Office Automation At The Desktop
 Backbones for factory automation
 Backend data centre applications
 Campus Lan Interconnection
 Intercampus backbones or metropolitan area networks (mans)
 Interconnection of private branch exchanges (pbxs)
 Workgroup and departmental LANS
 Integrated transport for multimedia applications

92
A FDDI BACKBONE NETWORK EXAMPLE

93
 References
 Behrouz Forouzan, “Data Communication and Networking”, McGraw Hill
 Andrew Tanenbaum “Computer Networks”, Prentice Hall.
 William Stallings, “Data and Computer Communication”, Pearson.
 Kurose and Ross, “Computer Networking- A Top-Down Approach”, Pearson.
 Peterson and Davie, “Computer Networks: A Systems Approach”, Morgan Kaufmann
 W. A. Shay, “Understanding Communications and Networks”, Cengage Learning.
 D. Comer, “Computer Networks and Internets”, Pearson.
 Behrouz Forouzan, “TCP/IP Protocol Suite”, McGraw Hill.

94
Than
k
You 95