PROCESS CONTROL-I

VIRENDRA KUMAR
TECHNICAL OFFICER – INSTRUMENT ENGINEERING
NATIONAL SUGAR INSTITUTE, KANPUR
 Session Topics
• History
• Basic Terminolgy
• Open loop & closed loop system
• ON-Off Controller
• PID controller
• Final Control Element
 History
• The application of Control techniques, historically speaking started
in the area of process control only .This is typical of 1900 – 1940
era.
• During the second word war the need of automatic air plane pilot,
The gun positioning system, Radar antena control systems etc.
• To solve these problems theory of servomechanisms was
developed. The Word servomechanism originated from the word
SERVO means the slave or the servent and the mechanisms this
means servomechanisms is a system which is slave to the
command. And this was the requirement of the weaponary system
during the world war -2.
• The theory of Servomechanisms and the process control are
converging now and a unified feedback control theory has emerged.
 Basic Terminology
• System – An interconnection of elements and devices for a
desired purpose
• Control System – An interconnection of components forming
a system configuration that will provide a desired response
• Process – The device, plant, or system under control. The
input and output relationship represents the cause-and-effect
relationship of the process.
• Controlled Variable: The attribute of the process you want to
control
• Manipulated Variable: MV is the variable to which process is
going to react.
• Disturbance variable: The variable which is uncalled for and
beyond our control.
 Open Loop System
• An Open-loop system, also referred to as non-feedback system, is a type of
continuous control system in which the output has no influence or effect on the
control action of the input signal. In other words, in an open-loop control
system the output is neither measured nor “fed back” for comparison with the
input. Therefore, an open-loop system is expected to faithfully follow its input
command or set point regardless of the final result

Disturbance

Command
Signal Plant /
Controller
Process Output
 Example: Open loop system
• Open-loop Drying System
 Advantages Of Open Loop Control System

• Simple in construction and design.

• Economical.
• Easy to maintain.
• Generally stable.
• Convenient to use as output is difficult to measure

Disadvantages Of Open Loop Control System

• They are inaccurate.

• They are unreliable.
• Any change in output cannot be corrected automatically.
 Closed Loop System
• A Closed-loop Control System, also known as a feedback control system is a control system
which uses the concept of an open loop system as its forward path but has one or more
feedback loops (hence its name) or paths between its output and its input. The reference to
“feedback”, simply means that some portion of the output is returned “back” to the input to
form part of the systems excitation.
Disturbance

Command MV Plant /
Controller
Output Process

Signal

Sensor
 Example:closed loop system
• Bathroom Toilet Tank (SISO System)
Closed Loop System- Block Diagram
Automobile Driving system (MIMO)
• Advantages OF Closed Loop Control System
• Closed loop control systems are more accurate even in the presence
of non-linearity.
• Highly accurate as any error arising is corrected due to presence of
feedback signal.
• Bandwidth range is large.
• Facilitates automation.
• The sensitivity of system may be made small to make system more
stable.
• This system is less affected by noise.
• Disadvantages Of Closed Loop Control System
• They are costlier.
• They are complicated to design.
• Required more maintenance.
• Feedback leads to oscillatory response.
• Overall gain is reduced due to presence of feedback.
• Stability is the major problem and more care is needed to design a
stable closed loop system.
Second order step response
• Rise time (tr) : The time taken for the output to go from 10 % to 90
% of the final value.

• Peak Time (tp): The time taken for the output to reach its maximum
value.

• Overshoot (Mp): (Max value – final value)/ Final value * 100

• Settling time (ts): The time taken for the signal to be bounded to
within a tolerance of x% of the steady state value.

• Steady state error (ess): The difference between the input step
value and the final value
 Transfer function of a closed loop system

• T(s) = D(s)G(s)
1+D(s)G(s)H(s)
 Feedforward Control

• The basic concept of feedforward control is to measure

important disturbance variables and take corrective action
before they upset the process.
 Cascade Control
• The inherent interaction that occurs between two control systems in many
applications is sometimes used to provide better overall control.
• In this scheme two measurements are taken from the system and each is
used in its own control loop. In its outer loop, however, the controller
output is the setpoint of the inner loop. Thus if outer loop controlled
variable changes, the error signal that is input to the controller effects a
change in the setpoint of the inner loop
 Final Control Operation
• Final control element operations involve the steps necessary to convert
the control signal (generated by a process controller) into proportional
action on the process itself. Thus to use a typical 4 -20 mA control signal to
vary a large flow rate from, say, 10 m3/min to 50 m3/min certainly
requires some intermediate operations.
• For a typical process control application, the conversion of process
controller signal to a control function can be represented by the steps
shown in fig.
 Signal conversions
• This step refers to the modifications that must be made to the control signal
to properly interface with the next stage of control i.e. Actuator.
• For ex. If a valve control element is to be operated by an electric motor
actuator, then a 4 -20 mA dc control signal must be modified to operate the
motor. If a DC motor is used , modification might be current to voltage
conversion and amplification.
• The devices that performs such signal conversions are often called
transducers.
• Controller output signal are typically in one of the three forms
1. Electrical current , usually 4 -20 mA
2. Pneumatic Pressure, usually 3 to 15 psi
3. Digital signals
There are amny different schemes for the conversion of these signals to
other forms depending on the desired final form.
 Examples of signal conditioning devices:
1. Amplifiers
2. Divider circuits
3. Bridge circuits
4. Pneumatic circuits
Amplifiers
• High power ac or dc amplifiers often can provide the necessary
conversion of the low energy control signal to a high energy form.
Divider circuits
• These circuits are used to convert a resistance value to voltage signal
Bridge circuits
• These circuits are used for converting resistance value to mV signals.
 Pneumatics
• The general field of pneumatics covers a broad spectrum of applications of
gas pressure to industrial needs.
• Pneumatics as a means of propagating information i.e. A signal carrier.
Principle: In a pneumatic system, information is carried by the pressure of
gas in a pipe. If we have a pipe of any length and raise the pressure of gas
at one end, this increase in pressure will propagate down the pipe untill
the pressure throught is raised to the new value.
• The pressure signal travels down the pipe at a speed in the range of the
speed of sound in the gas (say air) which is about 330 m/s.
• Advantages of using Pneumatics:
1. Air can be exhausted to atmosphere, you don’t need the reserviors.
2. Non inflamable
3. Viscosity of air is negligible compared to that of hydraulic fluid.
 Pneumatics
• The standard signal conversion is 4 -20 mA current to 3 -15 psi presssure
signal
• How to do this conversion?

4 – 20 mA ? 3 -15 psi
 I/P Converter
• This can be done by Electropneumatic
transducer (I/P converter)
• I/P converter translate the 4 -20 mA current signal to 3 -15 psi pressure
signal .
• There are many designs for these converters, but the basic principle
almost involves the use of a nozzle flapper system.
• The current through the coil produces a force that will tend to pull the
flapper down and close off the gap.
• A high current produce a high pressure so that the device is direct acting.
• Adjustment of the springs and the position relative to the pivot to which
they are attached allows the unit to be calibrated so that 4 mA
corresponds to 3 psig and 20 mA corresponds to 15 psig.
 Pneumatic Amplifier
• A pneumatic amplifier, also called
booster, raises the pressure and /
or air flow volume by some linearly
proportional amount from the
input signal.
• If the booster has a pressure gain
of 10, the output would be 30 to
150 psi for an input of 3 -15 psi.
• This is achieved via a regulator that
is activated by the control signal.
• This is reverse acting because a
high signal pressure will cause
output pressure to decrease.
 Actuators
• The actuator is a translation of the converted control signal into action on
the control element. Thus if a valve is to be operated, then actuator is a
device that converts control signal into the physical action of opening or
closing the valve.

Types of Actuators
• There are several types of actuators we are using in the industry
• Electrical Actuator
• Pneumatic actuator
• Hydraulic Actuator
 Electrical Actuators
• Solenoid: The basic principle of
operation involves a moving ferrous
core (a piston) that will move inside
a wire coil as shown. Normally the
piston is held outside of the coil by
a spring. When a voltage is applied
to the coil and current flows, the
coil builds up a magnetic field that
attracts the piston and pulls it into
the centre of the coil. The piston
can be used to supply a linear
force. There are many and varied
applications of solenoid actuators.
All requiring a similar type of
movement and force.
 Electrical motor
• In any electric motor,
operation is based on simple
electromagnetism. A current-
carrying conductor generates a
magnetic field; when this is
then placed in an external
magnetic field, it will
experience a force proportional
to the current in the conductor,
and to the strength of the
external magnetic field.
 Pneumatic Actuators
• The actuator often translates a control signal into a large force or torque as
required to manipulate some control element. The pneumatic actuator is the
most useful for such translation.
• The principle is based on the concept of pressure as force per unit area. If we
imagine that a net pressure difference is applied across a diaphragm of surface
area A, then a net force acts on the diaphragm given by
F = (p1 – p2) A

Where p1 – p 2 = Pressure difference

A = Diaphragm area
F = Force
• The pressure and force are linearly related, as shown in previous equation
and the compression of spring is linearly related to forces (as F = k*ΔX).
• Then we see that the shaft position is linearly related to the applied
control pressure.
ΔX = (A / k) * ΔP
Where
ΔX = Shaft travel (m)
ΔP = Applied gauge pressure (Pa)
A = Diaphragm area (m2)
k = Spring constant (N/m)

• Hydraulic Actuators are very fast acting devices. In the industry we are
using CPC as the final control element of governing mechanism of turbine.
 On – Off Controller
• On-Off control is the simplest form of feedback control. An on-off
controller simply drives the manipulated variable from fully closed to fully
open depending on the position of the controlled variable relative to the
setpoint. A common example of on-off control is the temperature control
in a domestic heating system. When the temperature is below the
thermostat setpoint the heating system is switched on and when the
temperature is above the setpoint the heating switches off.
• Although on-off is a very cheap form of control it is rarely used in process
control applications because of the oscillation it causes in the controlled
and manipulated variables. In a connected process these oscillations
would be propagated right through the system.
 P- Controller
• Proportional Control
• A proportional controller attempts to perform better than the On-off type
by applying power in proportion to the difference in temperature between
the measured and the set-point. As the gain is increased the system
responds faster to changes in set-point but becomes progressively
underdamped and eventually unstable. The final temperature lies below
the set-point for this system because some difference is required to keep
the heater supplying power.
•
 PI
• The combination of proportional and integral terms is important to
increase the speed of the response and also to eliminate the steady state
error.
 PID
• Although PD control deals neatly with the overshoot and ringing problems
associated with proportional control it does not cure the problem with the
steady-state error. Fortunately it is possible to eliminate this while using
relatively low gain by adding an integral term to the control function
which becomes
 Equations related to controllers
• P- Controller:
u = Kp*e
• PI- Controller:
u = Kp(e + 1/Ti ∫e dt)
• PD – Controller:
u = Kp(e + Td de/dt)
• PID – Controller:
u = Kp(e+ 1/Ti ∫e dt + Td de/dt)
Where
u = Control Signal
e = Error Signal (SP – PV)
Kp = Proportional gain
Ti = Integral time
Td = Derivative time
 The Characteristics of P, I, and D controllers

CL RESPONSE RISE TIME OVERSHOOT SETTLING TIME S-S ERROR

Kp Decrease Increase Small Change Decrease

Ki Decrease Increase Increase Eliminate

Kd Small Change Decrease Decrease Small Change

Application of PID controller

Temperature Control System

 Pneumatic Control Valves
• Why Control Valves used
• Process plants consist of hundreds, or even thousands, of control loops all
networked together to produce a product to be offered for sale. Each of
these control loops is designed to keep some important process variable
such as pressure, flow, level, temperature, etc. within a required operating
range to ensure the quality of the end product. Each of these loops
receives and internally creates disturbances that detrimentally affect the
process variable, and interaction from other loops in the network provides
disturbances that influence the process variable.
• To reduce the effect of these load disturbances, sensors and transmitters
collect information about the process variable and its relationship to some
desired set point. A controller then processes this information and decides
what must be done to get the process variable back to where it should be
after a load disturbance occurs. When all the measuring, comparing, and
calculating are done, some type of final control element must implement
the strategy selected by the controller
Principles of Operation
• The most common final control element in the process control industries
is the control valve. The control valve manipulates a flowing fluid, such as
gas, steam, water, or chemical compounds, to compensate for the load
disturbance and keep the regulated process variable as close as possible
to the desired set point.
• Control valves may be the most important, but sometimes the most
neglected, part of a control loop. The reason is usually the instrument
engineer's unfamiliarity with the many facets, terminologies, and areas of
engineering disciplines such as fluid mechanics, metallurgy, noise control,
and piping and vessel design that can be involved depending on the
severity of service condition.

Valve flow = f (Valve Pressure drop, stem position)

 What is a Control Valve?
• Control valves automatically regulate pressure and/or flow rate, and are
available for any pressure. If different plant systems operate up to, and at
pressure/temperature combinations that require Class 300 valves,
sometimes (where the design permits), all control valves chosen will be
Class 300 for interchange-ability. However, if none of the systems exceeds
the ratings for Class 150 valves, this is not necessary.
• Globe valves are normally used for control, and their ends are usually
flanged for ease of maintenance. Depending on their type of supply, the
disk is moved by a hydraulic, pneumatic, electrical or mechanical actuator.
The valve modulates flow through movement of a valve plug in relation to
the port(s) located within the valve body. The valve plug is attached to a
valve stem, which, in turn, is connected to the actuator.
Control Valve Arrangement
 Control Valve flow characteristics
• There are two types of characteristics of the control valves
1. Inherent flow characteristics
2. Installed flow characteristics
Inherent Flow characteristcs
• The percent of flow through the valve is plotted against valve stem
position. The curves shown are typical of those available from valve
manufacturers. These curves are based on constant pressure drop across
the valve and are called inherent flow characteristics.
 Control Valve flow characteristics-Contd
• Linear - flow capacity increases linearly with valve travel.
• Equal percentage - flow capacity increases exponentially with valve trim
travel. Equal increments of valve travel produce equal percentage changes
in the existing Cv
• Quick opening provides large changes in flow for very small changes in lift.
It usually has too high a valve gain for use in modulating control. So it is
limited to on-off service, such as sequential operation in either batch or
semi-continuous processes.
Installed Control Valve Flow Characteristics
• When valves are installed with pumps, piping and fittings, and other
process equipment, the pressure drop across the valve will vary as the
plug moves through its travel.
• When the actual flow in a system is plotted against valve opening, the
curve is called the Installed Flow Characteristic.
Any Questions
Thanks