Geophysics PEGS2055

Lecture 8

Seismic Reflection Surveys

Geophysics PEGS2055

Dr. Sambit Prasanajit Naik

[email protected]
n

Department of Petroleum Engineering and Earth Sciences, SOAE,

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 The two-way travel time (TWT) is the total time
taken for a seismic wave to travel from the source to
a reflector and back to the surface.
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•V is the constant seismic velocity of the layer,

•TWT is the two-way travel time of the seismic wave.

How to Obtain Two-Way Travel Time (TWT)

Generating Seismic Waves

A seismic source (e.g., dynamite, vibroseis,

or air gun) generates seismic waves at the
Earth's surface.
 Wave Propagation and Reflection

 When the seismic waves encounter a boundary between two

different rock layers (having different densities and
velocities), a portion of the energy reflects back toward the
surface.
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 The deeper the boundary, the longer the wave takes to

return.

Recording the Reflected Waves

 Geophones (on land) or hydrophones (in water) placed along

the survey line detect the reflected waves.

 Each sensor records the arrival time of the reflected seismic

waves.

Identifying Reflections in Seismic Data

 The time at which a reflected wave arrives at a geophone is

recorded in a seismogram (a time vs. amplitude graph).

 Each reflection event corresponds to a subsurface boundary.

 Measuring the Time Difference

 The time between the source signal (shot) and the reflection
arrival is measured.

 This is the two-way travel time (TWT) because the wave has
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traveled downward and back up.

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 When calculating the depth to a given subsurface boundary,
we need to account for the seismic wave travel time only
within each individual layer rather than the entire two-way
travel time (TWT) from the surface.

However, when dealing with multiple layers, we cannot directly

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use the total TWT for the entire depth because each layer has
a different velocity.

Instead, we must compute the depth incrementally, layer by

layer.

For the second layer, the wave travels beyond the first layer.
However, we only need to consider the additional time it
spends in this layer.

This is why we subtract the previous layer's TWT:

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 Oil Reservoir Depth Estimation

A petroleum company is exploring for hydrocarbons in a basin

where a known reservoir lies within a porous sandstone layer
at a TWT of 2.4 seconds. The geological survey provides an
average velocity of 4000 m/s for the overlying layers.
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 What is the estimated depth of the reservoir?

 If the seismic velocity increases by 10% due to compaction at greater
depths, what would be the corrected depth?

Given: Two-Way Travel Time (TWT) = 2.4 seconds

Seismic velocity of overlying layers = 4000 m/s

 Variable Velocity Case

 In the real world, seismic velocity changes with depth

because:

 Deeper rocks are more compacted (less space between grains

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→ higher velocity).
 Different types of rocks have different velocities (e.g., shale
vs. limestone vs. sandstone).
 The presence of fluids like oil, gas, or water also affects
velocity.

 Because of this, we cannot use a single velocity for the entire

 Depth Calculation Using Different Velocity Models in Seismic
Surveys

When seismic waves travel through the Earth's subsurface, their

velocity changes depending on the properties of different layers.

Different velocity models help in calculating depth more

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accurately by accounting for these variations.

Types of Velocity Models for Depth Calculation

1.Constant Velocity Model (Homogeneous Medium)

2.Layered Velocity Model (Horizontally Layered Earth)

3.Gradual Velocity Increase (Velocity Gradient)

4.Complex Velocity Models (Anisotropic & 3D Variations)

Constant Velocity Model (Single Layer)

 Depth Calculation Using Different Velocity Models in Seismic
Surveys
Layered Velocity Model (Horizontally Layered Earth)
For multiple layers, depth to the nth interface is:
where:
Vi​= velocity of the ith layer
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Ti = two-way travel time in the ith layer

Example:
 Depth Calculation Using Different Velocity Models in Seismic
Surveys
Velocity Gradient Model (Depth-Dependent Velocity)
When velocity increases with depth , we integrate over the
velocity function.
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Example

d ≈ 9100 m
 Depth Calculation Using Different Velocity Models in Seismic
Surveys
Examples To Solve

1. A seismic wave is recorded with a two-way travel time of 4.2

seconds in a medium where the seismic velocity is 5200 m/s.
Calculate the depth to the reflector.
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2. A seismic wave travels through two layers:

Layer 1: Velocity = 4000 m/s, Two-way travel time = 2.5 s

Layer 2: Velocity = 6000 m/s, Two-way travel time = 2.0 s

Determine the depth to the reflector.

3. In a subsurface where velocity increases with depth following

the equation:

V=V0+kZ where:

•V0=3500 m/s (velocity at the surface),

•k=0.10 per km (velocity gradient),
•Two-way travel time = 5.0 s.
 Depth Calculation Using Different Velocity Models in Seismic
Surveys
A seismic wave travels through three
layers:
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 Depth Calculation Using Different Velocity Models in Seismic
Surveys
Significance of Velocity Models in Oil Exploration

Velocity models play a crucial role in oil and gas exploration by

enabling accurate imaging of the subsurface and identifying
potential hydrocarbon reservoirs.
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Accurate Depth Estimation

Seismic surveys record two-way travel times of seismic waves,

but depth estimation requires velocity information.

Different subsurface layers (e.g., sandstone, shale, limestone)

have different seismic velocities.

Velocity models convert travel time data into accurate depth

maps of geological structures.
 Depth Calculation Using Different Velocity Models in Seismic
Surveys
Seismic Imaging and Structural Interpretation

•Velocity models help create seismic sections that reveal geological

features such as:
• Anticlines and Synclines (folds)
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• Faults and Traps (structural traps for hydrocarbons)

• Salt Domes (common in offshore oil fields)
Identifying Anticlines and Synclines (Folds)

Anticlines (upward-arching folds) are classic oil traps where hydrocarbons

accumulate due to buoyancy.
Synclines (downward-folded structures) usually contain water rather than
hydrocarbons.

Seismic waves travel faster through denser, compacted rocks and slower
through porous, oil-saturated formations.

If a velocity contrast is observed at the crest of an anticline, it may indicate

hydrocarbon presence.

Example: A velocity anomaly at the top of an anticline (lower than expected)

may indicate a porous oil-filled sandstone, whereas a higher velocity might
suggest compacted rock or water-filled pores.
Velocity Profile Interpretation:
•High velocity → Dense, compacted rock (may be water-filled or non-reservoir
 Depth Calculation Using Different Velocity Models in Seismic
Surveys
Faults and Structural Traps

Faults create potential oil traps by juxtaposing porous

reservoir rocks against impermeable seal rocks (e.g.,
shale).
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Velocity contrast between two sides of a fault helps

identify displaced rock units.

Hydrocarbon-filled formations show lower velocity than

water-filled formations.

Example: If seismic velocity suddenly changes across a

fault, it could indicate:

 A fault-bounded oil reservoir (low velocity on one side)

 A sealing fault (high velocity shale preventing oil
migration)

 Velocity Profile Interpretation:

 Abrupt velocity change → Fault displacement
 Depth Calculation Using Different Velocity Models in Seismic
Surveys
Salt Domes and Velocity Anomalies

 Salt has a much higher seismic velocity (4500-5500 m/s) than

surrounding sediments (~2000-3000 m/s).
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 Seismic waves speed up significantly inside salt domes and

bend around them.
 Below a salt dome, seismic waves take longer to return due to
the velocity contrast, creating an imaging challenge.

Example: If a velocity model correctly accounts for the high

velocity of salt, geophysicists can see below the salt dome,
revealing potential trapped hydrocarbons.

Velocity Profile Interpretation:

 Very high velocity → Salt body

 Low velocity zone beneath salt → Possible hydrocarbon
reservoir
 Distorted seismic reflections → Indicates the need for velocity
 Velocity from Seismic Reflection
Surveys
Seismic reflection is used to map subsurface stratigraphy
and
structures by analyzing the time taken for seismic waves to
travel to a reflector and return to the surface.
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Seismic velocity models are essential for interpreting

subsurface structures and refining seismic data processing
techniques.

Understanding different velocity types is critical in applications

such as seismic migration, depth conversion, and hydrocarbon
exploration.
Root Mean Square (RMS) Velocity (Vᵣₘₛ)

RMS velocity represents an average velocity of seismic waves

traveling from the surface to a reflector and back.
 Velocity from Seismic Reflection
Surveys
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One-way travel time: Refers to the time taken for a seismic

wave to travel from the source to a reflecting or refracting
interface and reach a geophone or hydrophone.

It is commonly used in seismic reflection and refraction studies

to determine subsurface structures.

Seismic Reflection: The two-way travel time (TWT) is recorded,

and the one-way travel time is calculated as TWT/2.

Seismic Refraction: The one-way travel time is used to determine

subsurface velocity and depth of layers.
 Velocity from Seismic Reflection
Surveys
Interval Velocity (Vᵢ)
Interval velocity is the velocity of seismic waves as they travel
through a specific subsurface layer, often between two
geological interfaces.
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Interval velocity (Vi​) is derived using Dix's Equation, which

relates RMS velocity to interval velocity

Migration Velocity: Migration velocity is the velocity model used

in seismic migration, a process that corrects the apparent
positions of reflectors due to dipping structures and complex
subsurface geometries.

It represents the true velocity distribution within the subsurface

that allows seismic reflections to be repositioned correctly in
their actual geological locations.

Importance of Migration Velocity:

Essential for accurate seismic imaging.

 Velocity from Seismic Reflection
Surveys
Velocity from Seismic Reflection Surveys

Seismic reflection is used to map subsurface stratigraphy and structures

by analyzing the time taken for seismic waves to travel to a reflector
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and return to the surface.

How to Derive Velocity from Seismic Reflection Data
Normal Moveout (NMO) Correction
 Seismic waves travel different distances depending on the offset of
the seismic receiver.
 The difference in travel time between a source-receiver pair and a
vertically reflected wave is called Normal Moveout (NMO).
 The velocity required to correct for NMO is called stacking velocity
(Vs​).
 Velocity from Seismic Reflection
Surveys
Velocity from Seismic Reflection Surveys

Seismic reflection is used to map subsurface stratigraphy and structures

by analyzing the time taken for seismic waves to travel to a reflector
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and return to the surface.

How to Derive Velocity from Seismic Reflection Data
Normal Moveout (NMO) Correction
 Seismic waves travel different distances depending on the offset of
the seismic receiver.
 The difference in travel time between a source-receiver pair and a
vertically reflected wave is called Normal Moveout (NMO).
 The velocity required to correct for NMO is called stacking velocity
(Vs​).
 Velocity from Seismic Reflection
Surveys
What is Stacking Velocity?

Stacking velocity (Vs​) is a special type of seismic

velocity used in seismic reflection surveys to correct for
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differences in travel time caused by the varying

distances between seismic sources and receivers.

Imagine you are listening to an echo in a valley. If you

shout from different spots, the echo takes different
amounts of time to return depending on where you are.

Similarly, in a seismic survey, seismic waves take longer

to return to receivers that are farther from the source.

This extra travel time creates a curved (hyperbolic)

reflection pattern in seismic data.

Stacking velocity helps us flatten these curves, making

it easier to combine (stack) multiple seismic signals and
get a clear image of the subsurface.
 Velocity from Seismic Reflection
Surveys
In a Common Midpoint (CMP) gather, reflections from a
geological layer appear as hyperbolic curves due to increasing
wave travel time with offset.
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A Common Midpoint (CMP) is a key concept in seismic reflection

surveys where multiple seismic measurements (traces) are
recorded at different distances (offsets) but share the same
reflection point in the subsurface.

To properly sum (stack) these signals and improve clarity, we

need to correct for Normal Moveout (NMO)—the extra time
delay for waves recorded at greater distances.

The velocity that best flattens these hyperbolic curves is called

the stacking velocity.
 Velocity from Seismic Reflection
Surveys
Dix's Equation for Interval Velocity

Once the RMS velocity (Vrms​) is obtained from velocity

analysis, the interval velocity (Vi​) of individual layers can be
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calculated using Dix's Equation:

 Velocity from Seismic Reflection
Surveys
Calculating RMS Velocity (Vrms​)
Interval Velocity Two-way Travel
Layer
(Vi​) (m/s) Time (ti​) (s)
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1 2000 0.6

2 3000 0.9
 Velocity from Seismic Reflection
Surveys
Calculating Interval Velocity (Vi) using Dix’s
Equation
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Find the interval velocity (Vi) of the second layer using Dix’s
equation:
 Velocity from Seismic Reflection
Surveys
Finding Stacking Velocity (Vs​)
A seismic survey records travel times for a reflector at various
offsets. The zero-offset two-way travel time is 1.2 s, and the
travel time at an offset of 1000 m is 1.5 s. Determine the
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stacking velocity.
Using the Normal Moveout (NMO) equation:
 Importance of Seismic Velocity Calculation in Mineral and Oil
Exploration

Seismic velocity calculations play a crucial role in the

exploration of minerals, oil, and gas by providing key
information about the subsurface structure, rock properties,
Identifying Subsurface Rock Layers
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and fluid content.

 Different rock types have distinct seismic velocities due to
variations in density and elasticity.
 By analyzing seismic velocity, geophysicists can differentiate
between:

 Sedimentary rocks (potential reservoirs) vs.

Igneous/metamorphic rocks (basement rocks).
 Hard rocks (granite, basalt) vs. Soft rocks (shale,
sandstone).

 For Example:

 Sandstone (potential reservoir rock) has a velocity of 2500–

4500 m/s.
 Shale (cap rock or source rock) has a velocity of 1500–3500 m/s.
 Limestone (reservoir rock) has a velocity of 4000–6000 m/s.
 Importance of Seismic Velocity Calculation in Mineral and Oil
Exploration
Hydrocarbon Detection (Oil & Gas Exploration)
Seismic velocity is sensitive to fluid content. Oil and gas
exploration relies on velocity contrasts to:
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•Distinguish between fluid-filled and solid-filled reservoirs.

•Identify gas pockets, as gas reduces seismic velocity.

•High seismic velocity → Indicates compact rock (e.g., limestone,

sandstone with water).

•Low seismic velocity → Indicates oil or gas accumulation (since

fluids reduce velocity).
 Importance of Seismic Velocity Calculation in Mineral and Oil
Exploration
Estimating Depth to Reservoirs (Depth
Conversion)

 Seismic velocity is used to convert two-way travel

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time (TWT) into depth.

 This is essential for accurately mapping oil, gas,
and mineral deposits.
Structural Mapping & Fault Detection

Velocity variations help identify structural traps such as

faults, folds, salt domes, and anticlines.

 These structures often serve as oil and gas traps.

 Anticlines: Ideal oil traps.

 Faulted structures: Can create oil reservoirs if sealed.

 Salt domes: Indicate hydrocarbon migration pathways.

 Importance of Seismic Velocity Calculation in Mineral and Oil
Exploration
Mineral Exploration (Ore Deposit
Identification)
 Seismic velocity variations can indicate mineral-rich zones.
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 Useful in mapping ore bodies such as gold, copper, and iron

Wyllie’s Equation for Porosity Calculation
deposits.

 High-velocity zones → Denser minerals (e.g., iron ore,

sulfide deposits).
Determining Porosity
 Low-velocity zones & Rock
→ Porous Properties
formations (e.g., fracture
zones containing minerals).
Seismic velocity helps estimate:

 Porosity: Determines how much oil, gas, or water a rock can

hold.

 Permeability: Indicates how easily fluids can move through rock

formations.
 Importance of Seismic Velocity Calculation in Mineral and Oil
Exploration
Reducing Drilling Risks & Costs

 Drilling an oil or mineral exploration well is expensive ($10

million+ per well).
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 Uses seismic velocities to estimate rock properties and fluid

content before drilling.

 Seismic velocity calculations minimize risks by identifying dry

wells before drilling.

 Helps predict drilling hazards such as overpressure zones and

hard rock formations.

Identifying Unconventional Resources (Shale

Gas & Hydrates)
 Seismic velocity helps locate shale gas, coalbed methane
(CBM), and gas hydrates.

 Low velocity zones in deep sediments indicate gas hydrate

 Seismic Inversion

Seismic inversion is a technique used in seismic reflection

surveys to convert seismic reflection data into a quantitative
rock property model.
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Unlike traditional seismic interpretation, which focuses on

visualizing seismic reflections, seismic inversion translates
these reflections into acoustic impedance, providing a more
direct estimation of subsurface lithology and fluid content.
 Why is Seismic Inversion Important?

The raw seismic reflection data primarily

shows contrasts in acoustic impedance
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(product of density and seismic velocity)

rather than absolute rock properties.

By inverting seismic reflection data, we obtain

acoustic impedance, which helps in
differentiating rock types, porosity variations,
and fluid content (oil, gas, or water).

Seismic inversion can reduce the ambiguity in

seismic interpretation by providing better
resolution of subsurface geological features.
 Types of Seismic Inversion

Seismic inversion can be broadly classified into the following

categories:
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Acoustic Impedance Inversion

Converts seismic reflection amplitudes into acoustic impedance

AI = Density × Seismic Wave Velocity

Helps in distinguishing between different rock types, such as

shale vs. sandstone.
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Introduction to Geophysics-UPES
 Reflection Coefficient Reflection Type Interpretation
The reflection coefficient (R) can vary
(R)

between
R≈0
-1 to +1 depending
Very Weak Reflection
on the
Little to no impedance
contrast
contrast
0.0 < R < 0.2 in acoustic impedance.
Weak Reflection Slight impedance con-
trast (e.g., fine sandstone
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over shale)
0.2 < R < 0.4 Moderate Reflection Noticeable lithology
change (e.g., shale over
limestone)
0.4 < R < 0.6 Strong Reflection Large impedance con-
trast (e.g., water-filled
sand over limestone)
0.6 < R < 0.9 Very Strong Reflection High contrast, e.g., gas
sand over shale
R > 0.9 Near-Total Reflection Large density/velocity
contrast, e.g., hard basalt
over soft sediment
-0.1 < R < -0.3 Weak Negative Reflection Soft rock over hard rock
(e.g., shale over sand-
stone)
-0.3 < R < -0.6 Strong Negative Reflec- Indicates fluid change,
tion gas-saturated formations
Sheriff,
-0.6 <R< R.E. & Geldart, L.P.
-0.9 (1995).
Very StrongExploration
Negative Re- Seismology.
High-contrast gas reser-
 Determining Density from Acoustic Impedance

A rock layer has an acoustic impedance of 9.5×106

kg/m²s. If the P-wave velocity of the layer is 3800 m/s,
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calculate the density of the rock.

 Determining P-wave Velocity from
Acoustic Impedance
A sandstone layer has a density of 2600 kg/m³, and
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its acoustic impedance is 7.8×106 kg/m²s. Calculate

the P-wave velocity of the layer.
 Elastic Impedance (EI) inversion is an extension of acoustic impedance
(AI) inversion that considers changes in seismic reflectivity with
different angles of incidence.

It is particularly useful in Amplitude Versus Offset (AVO) studies, which

help geologists and geophysicists detect different rock types and fluid
Amplitude
content Versus
in the Offset (AVO) is a seismic technique used to
subsurface.
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analyze how the reflection amplitude of a seismic wave

changes with increasing source-receiver offset (distance).

In simple terms, AVO helps detect fluid-filled reservoirs (oil,

gas, or water) by analyzing amplitude variations at different
angles.

It is widely used in oil and gas exploration to differentiate

between
When brine-filled,
a seismic wave oil-filled,
encountersand
a gas-filled
boundary reservoirs.
between two
different rock layers, part of the wave is reflected and part is
transmitted.

The amount of reflection depends on:

 Acoustic Impedance (Z) of each layer.
 Angle of Incidence (θ).
 Fluid Content (water, oil, or gas).

Seismic amplitude changes with offset due to differences in P-

 Why is Elastic Impedance Important?

Traditional Acoustic Impedance (AI) inversion only works

for normal incidence (zero-angle reflections).

Elastic Impedance (EI) inversion accounts for reflections

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at different angles, making it more effective for detecting

lithology variations and fluid changes.

It helps geologists distinguish between brine-filled, oil-

filled, and gas-filled reservoirs more accurately.
 At normal incidence (when seismic waves travel straight down
and reflect vertically):
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This equation is the same as Acoustic Impedance (AI).

In this case, seismic waves do not "sense" S-wave velocity (Vs​

), making it difficult to differentiate between some rock types
and fluids.

At normal incidence, seismic reflections are based only on P-wave

properties, making it hard to distinguish between similar rocks
and fluids (e.g., brine vs. oil sands).
 When the seismic wave reflects at an angle instead of normal
incidence:

The reflection behavior changes.

 S-wave velocity (Vs​) now affects the reflection.

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 Different fluids (oil, gas, water) influence the wave

differently.

S-wave velocity (Vs​) reacts differently to fluids.

For example:

 Brine-filled rocks have higher Vs.

 Gas-filled rocks have lower Vs​.
 Oil-filled rocks fall in between.
 Higher angles (θ>0∘) provide more information about the rock type and
fluid content.
  The angle of incidence (θ) in seismic reflection surveys is the
angle at which a seismic wave approaches and reflects off an
interface between two subsurface layers.

 This angle is crucial for Amplitude Versus Offset (AVO)

analysis, Elastic Impedance (EI) calculations, and seismic
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inversion techniques.

 When a seismic wave is emitted from a source, it travels

through the subsurface and encounters a boundary
(interface) between two different layers.

 The angle of incidence is the angle between the incident

seismic ray and the normal to the reflecting boundary.

 The behavior of the wave at this boundary is governed by

Snell’s Law.
Using Snell’s Law to Calculate the Angle of Incidence

Snell’s Law relates the angle of incidence (θ​) and the angle of
transmission (θ2​) to the seismic velocities (V1, V2​) of the
respective layers:
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Determining the Angle of Incidence from

Seismic Geometry
The angle of incidence can be calculated using the geometry of
the seismic experiment.
 Why Does Vs​Matter at Higher Angles?

 S-waves do not travel through fluids. If Vs is

very low, it suggests the presence of gas or a
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high-porosity rock.

 A significant drop in Vs at higher angles

means the rock could be hydrocarbon-
bearing.

 By analyzing EI at different angles, we can:

• Detect fluid saturation in a reservoir.

• Differentiate between shale, sandstone,

and carbonate formations.
 A seismic wave is traveling through sandstone (V1=2500 m/s)
and enters limestone (V2=4000 m/s). The wave strikes the
interface at an incident angle of θ1=30∘.

Find the refracted angle θ2​.

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 A seismic wave refracts at 40°
A seismic wave travels from
when passing from basalt
shale (V1=3000 m/s) into
(V1=4800 m/s) into sandstone
granite (V2=5000 m/s).
(V2=3200 m/s). Find the
incident angle θ​in basalt.
Find the critical angle θ​ at
which the wave undergoes
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total internal reflection.

 A seismic wave strikes a boundary at 25∘ in a layer where
V1=2000 m/s and is refracted at 45∘ into a second layer. Find
the velocity (V2​) of the second layer.
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 Calculating Elastic
Impedance
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Answer
 Calculating Elastic
Impedance
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Answer
 Practical Implications of Elastic Impedance (EI)
in Oil & Gas and Mineral Exploration
Elastic Impedance (EI) plays a crucial role in oil and gas
exploration as well as mineral exploration by helping
geophysicists extract valuable subsurface information.
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It improves the accuracy of reservoir characterization, fluid

detection, and lithology identification, making exploration
efforts more cost-effective and efficient.

Role of Elastic Impedance in Exploration

Why Elastic Impedance (EI)?

 Traditional acoustic impedance (AI) works best for normal

incidence angles.

 EI extends impedance analysis to any angle θ, improving

subsurface characterization at different reflection angles.

 AVO (Amplitude Versus Offset) limitations are addressed by

EI, making it more robust for reservoir prediction.
 Practical Implications of Elastic Impedance (EI)
in Oil & Gas and Mineral Exploration
Identifying Hydrocarbons (Oil & Gas Reservoirs)

 EI helps differentiate between gas-saturated and water-

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saturated rocks.

 At different angles, gas reservoirs show distinct EI

responses compared to brine-filled or oil-bearing rocks.

 EI inversion enhances hydrocarbon identification by

providing a more reliable lithology-fluid distinction.

Key Indicators of Hydrocarbons using EI

 Low EI values → Possible gas reservoirs.

 Moderate EI values → Likely oil-saturated reservoirs.

 High EI values → Indicate brine-filled reservoirs or hard

 Practical Implications of Elastic Impedance (EI)
in Oil & Gas and Mineral Exploration
Improved Lithology Differentiation in Oil & Gas

 EI provides a more accurate distinction between rock types

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(shale, sandstone, limestone, dolomite).

 Shale vs. Sandstone:

 Shale generally has low EI values.

 Oil-bearing sandstones have moderate EI values.

 Carbonate Reservoirs (Limestone vs. Dolomite):

 Dolomites have higher EI due to higher density and

velocity.

Practical Implication:

EI helps reduce drilling risks by identifying potential reservoir

rocks vs. non-reservoir rocks.
 Practical Implications of Elastic Impedance (EI)
in Oil & Gas and Mineral Exploration
Detection of Ore Bodies & Mineral Deposits

Ore minerals have distinct EI values compared to surrounding

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rocks.

 EI inversion helps identify metallic ores like gold, copper, iron,

and nickel.

Practical Use in Mineral Exploration

 Sulphide minerals (e.g., pyrite, chalcopyrite, galena) → Show

high EI values.
 Quartz veins → Exhibit low EI values.
 Ore-hosting fault zones → Detected through EI contrasts.

Example:

 Copper sulfide deposits have high EI values due to high

density and velocity.
 Practical Implications of Elastic Impedance (EI)
in Oil & Gas and Mineral Exploration
EI-Based Structural Mapping of Mineralized Zones
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 EI assists in mapping faults, fractures, and alteration

zones.

 Alteration zones (e.g., hydrothermal deposits) have

distinct EI signatures due to mineral transformations.

 Helps map subsurface faults where ore bodies accumulate.

 Identifies deep-seated mineralized zones for mining

exploration.
 Corrections Applied in Seismic Reflection
Surveys
Seismic reflection surveys require several corrections toimprove
accuracy and eliminate distortions caused by factors such as
elevation differences, subsurface velocity variations, and wave
travel path complexities.
Geophysics PEGS2055

The key corrections applied are:

Static Corrections (Elevation and Weathering Effects)

 Account for variations in surface elevation and near-surface

low-velocity layers (e.g., soil, weathered rock).

 Ensure that seismic traces align correctly before deeper

reflections are analyzed.
Types of Static Corrections:

Elevation Correction

 When geophones and sources are at different elevations,

seismic waves travel different distances to reach the
subsurface.

 To correct this, all recorded data are referenced to a common

 Corrections Applied in Seismic Reflection
Surveys
Seismic reflection surveys require several corrections toimprove
accuracy and eliminate distortions caused by factors such as
elevation differences, subsurface velocity variations, and wave
travel path complexities.
Geophysics PEGS2055

The key corrections applied are:

Static Corrections (Elevation and Weathering Effects)

 Account for variations in surface elevation and near-surface

low-velocity layers (e.g., soil, weathered rock).

 Ensure that seismic traces align correctly before deeper

reflections are analyzed.
Types of Static Corrections:

Elevation Correction

 When geophones and sources are at different elevations,

seismic waves travel different distances to reach the
subsurface.

 To correct this, all recorded data are referenced to a common

 Corrections Applied in Seismic Reflection
Surveys
Types of Static Corrections:

Elevation Correction where:

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h= elevation difference (m)

V= seismic velocity in the near-surface lay

Weathering Correction in Seismic Reflection

Surveys
Weathering correction is applied in seismic processing to
account for the low-velocity near-surface layer (weathered
layer) that slows down seismic waves.

This correction ensures that travel times are properly aligned

across different geophone locations.
 Corrections Applied in Seismic Reflection
Surveys
 The weathered layer (topmost layer) consists of loose, unconsolidated
material like soil, sand, or fractured rock.

 It has a significantly lower seismic velocity than the underlying bedrock.

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 The seismic waves slow down when traveling through this layer,
introducing delays in recorded travel times.

 Correction is applied to remove these time delays, making seismic

events appear as if they were recorded from a uniform datum.
Calculating Weathering Correction

Identify the Weathered Layer Properties

We need two parameters:

 Thickness of the weathered layer (hw in meters)

 Velocity of the weathered layer (Vw in m/s)

 Velocity of the sub-weathered layer (Vs in m/s) (usually the

bedrock or consolidated layer)
 Corrections Applied in Seismic Reflection
Surveys
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Why 2hw​?

 The seismic wave travels down through the

weathered layer (hwh​).

 The wave reflects from a deeper layer and travels

back up (hwh​).

 The total travel distance in the weathered layer is

2hw​.
 Uphole Survey (Direct Measurement)

An Uphole Survey provides a direct measurement of the

weathered layer properties by using a borehole and
surface geophones.
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1.Drill a shallow borehole down to the sub-weathered

layer (bedrock).

2.Place a seismic source at different depths inside the

borehole.

3.Install geophones at the surface near the borehole to

record wave arrivals.

4.Generate seismic waves at various depths and record

the first-arrival times at the geophones.

5.Plot the first-arrival times against depth to determine:

1.Velocity of the weathered layer (Vw) from the slope

of the first segment.
 The time-depth graph typically has two segments:

 A steeper slope (low velocity) in the weathered layer.

 A gentler slope (higher velocity) in the consolidated

sub-weathered layer.
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 The point where the slope changes represents the

weathered layer thickness (hw).

 The velocity of the weathered layer (Vw​) is calculated as:

 Compute the Replacement Time

To correct for the delay, we replace the travel time through the
weathered layer with the expected time if it had traveled through the
sub-weathered layer.
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Why Do We Need Replacement Time in Weathering Correction?

In seismic reflection surveys, the weathered layer (low-velocity

layer) slows down seismic waves, causing extra time delays. To correct
for this, we replace the time the wave actually traveled through the
weathered layer with the time it would have taken if it had
traveled through the underlying sub-weathered layer (bedrock or
consolidated layer).
Reasons Why Replacement Time is Needed:

Removes Artificial Delays: The low-velocity weathered layer causes

waves to arrive later than expected.

Ensures Accurate Depth Estimation: Correcting for extra delay

prevents incorrect depth calculations.
 Understanding the Replacement Process

Before Correction:

•Actual Travel Time through Weathered Layer (tw​) is

computed using:
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•This is the extra delay caused by the weathered layer.

After Correction:

•The extra time delay is replaced by the expected travel time

through the sub-weathered layer (tr).
•Final correction applied:

•This removes the artificial delay and replaces it with the

expected time in a high-velocity medium.
 Corrections Applied in Seismic Reflection
Surveys
Compute the Weathering Correction
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 Corrections Applied in Seismic Reflection
Surveys
Example
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 Corrections Applied in Seismic Reflection
Surveys
Normal Moveout (NMO) Correction in Seismic
Reflection Surveys
NMO correction is a key step in seismic data processing that
corrects for the extra travel time taken by seismic waves
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reaching geophones at different distances (offsets) from the

source.

This correction is essential for aligning reflection events before

stacking and imaging.
Why is NMO Correction Needed?

 Seismic waves from a source reflect off subsurface layers and

return to geophones at different distances.

 Geophones closer to the source record reflections earlier than

those farther away.

 This variation in arrival time causes a hyperbolic curvature in

the seismic section.

 NMO correction flattens the hyperbola, aligning reflections to

their true zero-offset position.
 Corrections Applied in Seismic Reflection
Surveys
Geophysics PEGS2055

Example

•Zero-offset travel time: t0=2.0 s

•Velocity of subsurface: V=3000V = 3000V=3000 m/s
•Geophone offsets: x=[0,500,1000,1500]x = [0, 500, 1000,
1500]x=[0,500,1000,1500] m
 Corrections Applied in Seismic Reflection
Surveys
Example
•Zero-offset travel time: t0=2.0 s
•Velocity of subsurface: V=3000V = 3000V=3000 m/s
•Geophone offsets: x=[0,500,1000,1500] m
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 Dip Moveout (DMO) Correction in Seismic Reflection Survey

 Dip Moveout (DMO) correction is applied in seismic data

processing to correct errors introduced by dipping reflectors.

 It ensures that seismic events are properly positioned in their

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true subsurface locations, improving seismic imaging.

 Standard NMO correction assumes a flat-layered Earth—this works well

for horizontal reflectors but not for dipping beds.

 When a reflector is inclined (dipping), seismic waves travel longer paths

and appear at incorrect positions on seismic sections.

 Without DMO, reflections from a dipping layer will be mispositioned,

leading to errors in depth estimation and structural interpretation.
 Dip Moveout (DMO) Correction in Seismic Reflection Survey
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 Seismic Refraction Survey
Seismic refraction is a geophysical technique
used to map subsurface layers based on how
seismic waves travel through different
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materials. It is primarily used in:

 Engineering geology (e.g., foundation studies,

tunnel routes)
 Hydrogeology (e.g., groundwater table
mapping)

 Mineral and Hydrocarbon exploration

 Crustal studies (e.g., lithospheric structures)

 Basic Principle of Seismic Refraction
 Seismic refraction is based on Snell’s Law, which describes
how seismic waves bend (refract) at the interface between
layers with different seismic velocities.
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 When a seismic wave moves from a lower-velocity layer to a

higher-velocity layer, it bends away from the normal.

 When the wave moves from a higher-velocity layer to a lower-

velocity layer, it bends toward the normal.

 At a critical angle, the wave refracts along the interface and

generates head waves, which return to the surface and are
detected by geophones.
 Snell’s Law relates the angle of incidence (θ​) and the angle of
transmission (θ2​) to the seismic velocities (V1, V2​) of the
respective layers:
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Seismic Refraction Survey Equipment

1.Seismic Source: Generates seismic waves (e.g.,

hammer, explosives, weight drop).

2.Geophones: Sensors that detect ground vibrations.

3.Seismograph: Records seismic waves and their arrival

times.

4.Cables and Triggering System: Connects geophones and

synchronizes recordings.
Geophysics PEGS2055
 Wave Types in Seismic
Refraction
Direct Waves
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 Travel parallel to the surface.

 The first waves detected in shallow
refraction surveys.
 Travel with the velocity of the topmost
layer.
 Wave Types in Seismic
Refraction
Refracted Waves
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 When a wave reaches the interface at the critical

angle, it refracts along the boundary and travels at
the higher velocity of the deeper layer.

 The refracted wave generates secondary waves that

travel back to the surface and are recorded by
geophones.
 Wave Types in Seismic
Refraction
 Head waves are seismic waves that travel along the interface between
Head Waves
two layers where the lower layer has a higher velocity than the upper
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layer.

 When an incident wave from a seismic source hits an interface at the

critical angle (the angle at which refracted energy travels along the
interface), part of the energy is converted into a wave that travels
horizontally along the boundary.
 Wave Types in Seismic
Refraction
Reflected Waves (Not Used in Refraction
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Surveys)

Some waves reflect back at the interface but

are not used in refraction surveys (used in
reflection surveys instead).
Geophysics PEGS2055
Geophysics PEGS2055
 Difference between different type
of waves
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 How Seismic Refraction Works
A seismic wave is generated at the surface (using a
hammer blow, explosive, or weight drop).
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 It travels through the ground and encounters layer

boundaries.

 At each boundary:

1.Some energy is reflected

2.Some is refracted and travels along the boundary

 The refracted wave then returns to the surface, where

it is recorded by geophones.

 By analyzing the arrival times at different distances,

we can calculate:

1.Velocity of each layer

 Types of Seismic Refraction Surveys

 Surface Refraction Survey

 Downhole Seismic Survey

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 Crosshole Survey

 Reverse Refraction Survey

 Surface Refraction Survey
A surface seismic refraction survey is a non-invasive geophysical
method used to study the subsurface layering and material
properties by analyzing the first-arriving seismic waves that
have been refracted at layer boundaries.
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It helps geologists determine:

 Thickness of soil/rock layers  Velocities of different layer

 Depth to bedrock or water table  Presence of faults or fractu

Geophysics PEGS2055

Basic Working Principle

 A seismic source (hammer blow, weight drop, explosive) is placed on

the ground.

 Seismic waves travel downward and interact with subsurface layers.

 At each layer boundary, some energy is:

 Reflected back to the surface
 Refracted along the layer interface
 Refracted waves re-emerge at the surface and are recorded by
geophones placed at regular intervals.

 The first-arrival times are used to calculate:

 Seismic velocities of each layer
Geophysics PEGS2055

How Data is Collected

 Geophone Spread: A linear array of geophones is

placed on the surface.

 Shot Points: The source is placed at one or both ends

(or in between) of the spread.

 Time-Distance Plot: Arrival time vs. geophone distance

is plotted to interpret subsurface structure.
 How to Plot a Time-Distance (T-X) Curve

 Seismic source (hammer, weight drop,

 A line of geophones spaced at regular in

 A seismograph to record the arrival tim

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of seismic waves

Geophone Distance from Source First Arrival Time

No. (m) (ms)
1 0 0
2 5 10
3 10 20
4 15 30
5 20 40
6 25 47
7 30 53
8 35 60
9 40 67
10 45 75
 Geophone Distance (m) First Arrival (ms)
No.
1 0 0
2 5 10
3 10 20
4 15 30
5 20 40
6 25 47
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7 30 53
8 35 60
9 40 67
10 45 75
Layered Earth Model (Travel Time Geometry)

In seismic refraction, we assume layers of increasing velocity with depth.

When a seismic wave is generated, the travel path to distant geophones includes:

 Direct wave through the first layer (initially).

 Refracted wave along a deeper interface, for further geophones.

As you go farther from the source:

 For close geophones, the wave travels directly through the upper layer.
 For farther geophones, the wave may go down to a deeper, faster layer, travel
laterally, and then return to the surface.

 While deeper layers are faster, the total path is longer

(downward + horizontal + upward), leading to longer first
arrival times.
 Geophone Distance (m) First Arrival (ms)
No.
1 0 0
2 5 10
3 10 20
4 15 30
5 20 40
6 25 47
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7 30 53
8 35 60
9 40 67
10 45 75

Critical Distance and Refracted Arrivals

 The critical distance is where the refracted wave starts

arriving earlier than the direct wave.

 Before this point, arrival time increases linearly with a slope

equal to 1/v₁ (velocity of top layer).

 After this point, the refracted wave from deeper layer

dominates, but still the time increases with distance,
although at a shallower slope (because deeper layers are
faster).
 Geophone Distance (m) First Arrival (ms)
No.
1 0 0
2 5 10
3 10 20
4 15 30
5 20 40
6 25 47
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7 30 53
8 35 60
9 40 67
10 45 75

In seismic refraction, the first arrival time

increases with distance due to longer travel
paths and transition from direct to refracted
waves.

The deeper the layer and farther the geophone,

the longer the path—even if velocity is higher.
  Plot distance (X) on the horizontal axis (in meters)

 Plot time (T) on the vertical axis (in milliseconds or seconds)

 A steep straight line for the direct wave (initial part)

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 A shallower line appearing later — this is the refracted wave

The slope of each straight segment of the curve =

Velocity (V)=
 Geophone No. Distance from First Arrival Time From this table:
Source (m) (ms)
Between Geophone 1 and 5
1 0 0
2 5 10
• ΔT=40 ms
3 10 20
4 15 30
• ΔX=20 m
5 20 40
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6 25 47
7 30 53
8 35 60
9 40 67
10 45 75

This is the velocity of the top layer

From Geophone 6 to 10: ΔT=28 ms ; ΔX=20 m

Second layer velocity V1=714 m/

 Why Were Geophones 1 to 5 Used to Estimate the Top Layer
Velocity?

In Seismic Refraction Surveys, the First Part of the T-X Curve

Represents the Direct Wave

 The first arrivals recorded at short distances (i.e., geophones

Geophysics PEGS2055

close to the source) are usually the direct wave that travels
through the topmost layer.
How Can We Tell It’s the Direct Wave?
 These waves travel horizontally, not refracted or reflected.
 The travel time increases linearly with distance in the early
part of the curve.

 The slope of this initial straight line segment gives us the

velocity of the top layer V0​.
Why Only Geophones 1 to 5?
Geophone Pair Distance (m) Arrival Time Dif- Slope (ΔT/ΔX, Interpretation
ference (ms) ms/m)
1–2 5 10 2.0 Direct wave
2–3 5 10 2.0 Direct wave
So, we assume geophones 1–5 are dominated by the direct
3–4 5 10 2.0 Direct wave
wave traveling in the top layer, hence we use them to calculate
4–5 5 10 2.0 Direct wave
V0 (velocity of the uppermost layer).
5–6 5 7 1.4;Slope changes Refracted wave influence begins
here
Geophysics PEGS2055
 Using Intercept Time T0​
If we extend the refracted wave line back to the Y-axis (T-axis), it
intersects at T0​.

Formula to calculate depth:

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Example

So, the depth to the first boundary is approximately 7 meters.

 Using Crossover Distance Xc​

By knowing the crossover distance (where the refracted wave

first arrives earlier than direct wave), use:
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 What is Crossover Distance (Xc)?
The crossover distance is the point on the Time-Distance (T-X)
plot where the refracted wave overtakes the direct wave and
becomes the first-arriving seismic wave.
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Why is Xc Important?
At this point:
 The travel time of the refracted wave becomes less
than the direct wave.
 It marks the beginning of refracted wave dominance in
first arrival data.
 It’s used in equations to estimate depth to the first
interface (especially in two-layer models).
 Identify the Crossover Distance on the T-X Plot
Distance on the X-axis; First-arrival time on the Y-axis
1.Fit two straight lines:
1.One through the early part (steep slope → direct
wave)
2.One through the later part (flatter slope →
Geophysics PEGS2055

refracted wave)
2.Find the intersection point:
1.This point is the crossover distance Xc.
2.Where the two lines cross, their travel times are
equal.
Geophysics PEGS2055

That means crossover occurs just before 25 m → Xc

 Corrections Applied in Seismic Refraction Survey
Why Are Corrections Needed?

Seismic arrival times are affected by:

 Uneven surface elevations

Geophysics PEGS2055

 Low-velocity weathered zones

 Instrumental delays

To get accurate subsurface velocity and depth models, we

apply corrections to standardize the data as if all
measurements were made from a flat, uniform surface.

1. Elevation Correction

To adjust travel times when geophones are placed at

different elevations.
 Datum elevation = 100 m
 Geophone elevation = 98 m →
Δh=2 m V=500 m/s
 Corrections Applied in Seismic Refraction Survey
1. Elevation Correction

To adjust travel times when geophones are placed at

different elevations.
Geophysics PEGS2055

 Datum elevation = 100 m

 Geophone elevation = 98 m → Δh=2 m (below datum)

 V=500 m/s

Add 4 ms to arrival time to

simulate geophone at the
datum level.

A datum elevation is a reference horizontal surface (or level)

from which all elevations in a seismic survey are measured. It
serves as a common base level to which all geophone and
 Corrections Applied in Seismic Refraction Survey
Weathering Correction

To remove the effect of the low-velocity weathered

(unconsolidated) layer that causes arrival time delays.
Geophysics PEGS2055

Example

Subtract 7 ms from arrival time to remove weathered-layer

delay.
 Corrections Applied in Seismic Refraction Survey
Static Correction

A combined correction that includes both elevation and

weathering corrections.
Geophysics PEGS2055

It ensures all data are time-referenced to a flat, unweathered

surface (commonly used in seismic processing).

Example

Adjust the raw arrival time by adding or subtracting this

combined correction.
 Corrections Applied in Seismic Refraction Survey
Instrumental Correction

Accounts for delays caused by:

Geophysics PEGS2055

 Trigger delay in the seismograph

 Faulty wiring or sensors
 Source misfiring

Typical Correction:

A fixed time is added/subtracted to all readings

(determined during calibration).

For Example:

Known instrument delay = +2 ms

Subtract 2 ms from all recorded times to get corrected

 Combined Correction Example (Step-by-
Step)
Parameter Value
Arrival time (raw) 100
ms
Geophone elevation 98 m
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Datum Elevation 100 m

V=500 m/s
Weathered thickness 3m
Vw​=300, Vu=1000
Instrument delay +2ms

Final Corrected Time:

 Numerical 1: In a seismic refraction survey, a geophone is
placed at an elevation of 100 m, and the shot point is at 80
m. The average velocity of the upper layer is 800 m/s.
Calculate the elevation correction to be applied to the travel
time.
Solution:
Geophysics PEGS2055

Elevation difference=100−80=20 m

Elevation correction=20/800=0.025 seconds

Apply a +0.025 s correction to account for the higher

geophone elevation.
Numerical 2: The thickness of the weathered layer is 5 m, and
its velocity is 500 m/s. The velocity of the sub-weathered layer
is 2000 m/s. Compute the delay time correction.

Apply a -0.0075 s correction to account for weathering delay.

 Numerical 3: A geophone is placed at 10 m elevation below
the source. The surface has a weathered layer of 2 m
thickness with a velocity of 400 m/s, and the underlying layer
has 1600 m/s velocity. Calculate the total correction.

Numerical 4:
Geophysics PEGS2055

Given:
 Intercept time ti=0.12 s
 Critical angle ic=30∘
 Velocity of lower layer V2=1500 m/s.

Calculate the depth to the refractor.

Numerical 5:

 A seismic survey shows:

 Velocity of top layer (V₁) = 1500 m/s
 Velocity of second layer (V₂) = 3000 m/s
 Critical distance (Xc) = 200 m
 Intercept time (Ti) = 0.05 s

Calculate the depth to the top of the second layer.

 Difference Between Seismic Reflection and Refraction
Survey
Seismic Refraction Sur- Seismic Reflection Sur-
Parameter
vey vey
Uses first-arrival travel Uses reflected waves from
Principle
times of refracted waves subsurface layers
Data Recorded Head/refracted waves Reflected waves
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Generally deeper for high- Suitable for imaging shal-

Depth Penetration
velocity layers low to deep stratigraphy
High resolution; fine detail
Resolution Lower resolution
of subsurface layering
Preliminary reconnais- Detailed imaging of hydro-
Use in Hydrocarbon Explo-
sance; depth to bedrock or carbon traps and reservoir
ration
basement structures
Excellent for mapping an-
Limited capability for trap
Identification of Traps ticlines, faults, strati-
delineation
graphic traps
More expensive due to
Cost Relatively low complexity and data pro-
cessing
Oil and gas exploration,
Engineering, groundwater,
Common Applications structural and strati-
reconnaissance
graphic mapping
Not effective in complex
Sensitive to noise; com-
Limitations geology or where velocity
plex processing required
contrast is low
 Application of Seismic Refraction Survey
Applications in Hydrocarbon Exploration

1. Mapping Weathered Zone / Low-Velocity Layer

 Refraction helps identify the thickness of unconsolidated

Geophysics PEGS2055

sediments or weathered layers.

 This is crucial for designing deeper seismic reflection

surveys and static corrections.

2. Delineating Structural Features

 Provides velocity profiles of subsurface layers.

 Detects dipping beds, faults, and high-velocity zones that

may indicate basement highs or traps.

3. Basement Mapping

 Locates the depth to the crystalline basement, which is

important in sedimentary basins for hydrocarbon
generation and accumulation.
Geophysics PEGS2055 Application of Seismic Refraction Survey
Geophysics PEGS2055 Application of Seismic Refraction Survey
Geophysics PEGS2055 Application of Seismic Refraction Survey
Geophysics PEGS2055 Application of Seismic Refraction Survey
Geophysics PEGS2055 Application of Seismic Refraction Survey
 Assignment

 Case Studies of Seismic Reflection

Survey and Refraction Survey
Geophysics PEGS2055

 The case studies should be Research

papers from SCI journals

 There should not be any plagiarism or

AI copy.