Geophysics PEGS2055

Geophysics PEGS2055

Lecture
1
Overview
Dr. Sambit Prasanajit Naik
[email protected]

Department of Petroleum Engineering and Earth Sciences, SOAE,

 Recommended Textbook
Reynolds, J.M., 2011. An Introduction to Applied and
Environmental Geophysics. John Wiley & Sons.

Robinson, E.S., 1988. Basic Exploration

Geophysics PEGS2055

Geophysics.

Milsom, J. and Eriksen, A., 2013. Field

geophysics.
Course ID: PEGS2055

Mark distribution will be shared in the

following classes after getting an Idea about
it from Cluster Head
There Will be Surprised Quiz Exams
There will be Home assignments
There will be Class tests
 HOMEWORK

Homework is due one week after it is assigned

• Late homework will not be accepted one
Geophysics PEGS2055

week after the deadline.

• Late homework will be penalized:
80% for 1 day late
60% for 2 day late
40 % for 3 day late
20% for 4 day late.
 GEOLOGIC RESOURCES

Geologic resources are grouped into three major

categories:
Geophysics PEGS2055

– Energy resources - petroleum (oil and natural

gas), coal, uranium, geothermal resources
– Metals - iron, copper, aluminium, lead, zinc,
gold, silver, platinum, etc.
– Non-metallic resources – sand and gravel,
limestone, building stone, salt, sulphur, gems,
gypsum, phosphates, groundwater, etc.
 WHAT IS PETROLEUM?
•“Petroleum” is derived from Greek word “Petra-
oleum”
Geophysics PEGS2055

•“Petra” means “Rock” and

“Oleum” means Oil”
•Petroleum means Rock-oil
• Petroleum is a naturally occurring
flammable liquid consisting of complex
mixture of hydrocarbons of various molecu-
lar weights and other liquid organic com-
pounds those are found in Geologic For-
mations beneath the Earth’s surface.
•It is also called crude oil.
 WHAT IS PETROLEUM?
Petroleum or Crude oil is formed within the crust of the
earth. Scientists think that the bodies of pre-historic sea animals
and plants became trapped in sediments. After millions of
Geophysics PEGS2055

years, heat and pressure changed them into crude oil and natural
gas.
Crude oil and natural gas are usually found together in the crust of
the earth. To get the oil and gas, it is necessary to drill into the
earth's crust.

Animal Fossil Plant Fossil

 WHERE PETROLEUM CAN BE FOUND?

Petroleum can be found from a

part of the Earth whose
thickness is less than 0.05% of
Geophysics PEGS2055

its radius.

This part is known as crust of

the earth.

Internal Structure of Earth

 REL ATION: PETROLEUM GEOLOGY AND
OTHER SCIENCES
Geophysics PEGS2055
 HYDROCARBON/PETROLEUM EXPLORATION

Hydrocarbon exploration involves both surface mapping and

Geophysics PEGS2055

sub-surface mapping.

Surface mapping includes understanding of outcrop geology,

observations on occurrences of seepages (oil seepage, Naga
thrust belt, Assam), vugs and vein fillings (Cauvery basin
outcrops), kerogen shales or oil shales (Disang shales in Naga
fold belt).
 SUBSURFACE MAPPING

Purpose of subsurface mapping in petroleum exploration is to

find traps that contain oil and gas pools.
Geophysics PEGS2055

Subsurface mapping one can learn stratigraphic relations,

potential reservoir rocks, position and nature of
unconformities, time of folding and faulting, change of folding
with depth, facies changes.

Kinds of Maps
1. Structural maps (Structural maps
are representations of subsurface
geological structures, displaying the
spatial orientation of rock layers, faults,
folds, and other geological features).
2. Isopach maps (how thickness
variations of a specific rock
layer, indirectly revealing
structural influences.)
3. Facies maps
4. Geochemical maps
(geochemical variation map )
 T E C H N IQU E S U S E D IN H Y D R OC A R BON EXPLORATION
Geophysics PEGS2055

Remote Sensing

Geological Surveys Geophysical Surveys

 R E M O T E SEN S IN G IN H Y D R O C A R B O N EXPLORATION

Aerial Photographs
Geophysics PEGS2055
 R E M O T E SEN S IN G IN H Y D R O C A R B O N EXPLORATION

Satellite Images
Geophysics PEGS2055
 GE OP H Y S IC AL T OOL S U S E D I N H Y D R OC AR BON EXPLO-
RATION

The tool used in Hydrocarbon explo-

Geophysics PEGS2055

ration :
• Seismic Reflection and Refraction
• Gravity Method
• Magnetic Method
• Electrical Method
• Electromagnetic Method
• Radioactivity Method
 C L AS S IF IC AT ION OF GE OP H Y S IC A L M E T H OD S

• Gravity
Potential Field
Geophysics PEGS2055

• Magnetics

• Electrical
Diffusive Fields
• Heat Flow
• Electro magnetics (EM)

• Seismic (Sound Waves)Wave Propagation

• Radar (EM Waves)
 COMPONENTS OF GEOPHYSICS

• Gravity
Potential Field
• Magnetics
Geophysics PEGS2055

The gravity and magnetic methods in geophysics are referred

to as potential field methods because they involve the study
of scalar potential fields generated by gravitational and
magnetic forces, which obey the principles of potential theory.

Magnetic and gravity exploration, also referred to as

“potential fields” exploration, is used to give geoscientists an
indirect way to “see” beneath the Earth’s surface by sensing
different physical properties of rocks (magnetization and
density, respectively).

Gravity and magnetic exploration can help locate faults,

mineral and petroleum resources, and ground-water
reservoirs. Potential-field surveys are relatively inexpensive
geophysical methods and can quickly cover large areas of
ground.
 C OM P ON E N T S OF GE OP H Y S IC S
• Electrical
• Heat Flow Diffusive Fields
• Electro magnetics (EM)
Geophysics PEGS2055

Electrical, Heat Flow, and Electromagnetic (EM) methods in

geophysics are referred to as diffusive field methods because the
governing physical processes involve diffusion rather than
propagation or potential theory. These fields are governed by
equations similar to diffusion equations, which describe the gradual
transfer or spread of energy (electrical, thermal, or electromagnetic)
over time.
 COMPONENTS OF GEOPHYSICS

• Seismic (Sound Waves)

Wave Propagation
• Radar (EM Waves)
Geophysics PEGS2055

Seismic (Sound Waves) and Radar (Electromagnetic Waves)

are referred to as wave propagation methods because they
involve the transmission and analysis of waves as they
propagate through different media.

The behavior of these waves, such as their speed,

attenuation, reflection, refraction, and diffraction, is used to
extract information about the properties and structure of
the medium they traverse.
 G E O P H Y S I C A L M E T H O D S B A S E D O N M O D E O F S U RV E Y

Airbrone Survey
Geophysics PEGS2055
 G E O P H Y S I C A L M E T H O D S B A S E D O N M O D E O F S U RV E Y

Land Survey
Geophysics PEGS2055
 G E O P H Y S I C A L M E T H O D S B A S E D O N M O D E O F S U RV E Y

Marine Survey
Geophysics PEGS2055
 GE OP H Y S IC AL S URV E Y S IN H Y D R OC A R BON EXPLORATION

Gravity Survey
Geophysics PEGS2055

Involves measuring a field of

force in the earth that is not
generated by the observer.
Field instruments are designed
to measure differences in gravity.
Variation in gravity depend on
lateral changes in the density of
earths materials.
Most sedimentary rocks have
densities lower than basement
rocks, make possible to map
boundaries and determine
approximate depth distribution
of sedimentary basins
 GE OP H Y S IC AL S URV E Y S IN H Y D R OC A R BON EXPLORATION

Bouguer Gravity Anomaly Map of Cauvery Basin

Geophysics PEGS2055

Madanam
horst
Ariyalur-Pondicherry Tranqueba
sub-basin r
Kumbakonam sub-basin
horst Karaikal
horst
Tanjore
sub-basin
Nagapattinam
sub-basin
Pattukottai
horst
Ramnad
sub-basin
Mandapam
horst
 GE OP H Y S IC AL S URV E Y S IN H Y D R OC A R BON EXPLORATION

Magnetic Survey
Geophysics PEGS2055

Gives information to determine

the depth to basement rocks to
locate and define extent of
sedimentary basins.

Sedimentary rocks exert small

magnetic effects compared to
igneous rocks.

All variations in magnetic

intensity measurable at surface
result from topographic or
lithologic changes associated
with basement or
intrusives igneous
 G E O PH YSIC A L S U RV EY S IN H Y D R O C A R B O N EXPLO-
RATION

Seismic Survey
Geophysics PEGS2055
 GE OP H Y S IC AL S URV E Y S IN H Y D R OC A R BON EXPLORATION

Seismic Survey
Geophysics PEGS2055

Seismic survey involves creation of seismic waves or elastic

waves generated artificially.

These waves are created by explosion in shallower depth

which transmits through the earth as seismic waves and
bounce back from reflecting surfaces and are detected by
geophones.

The reflecting surfaces are usually between two rock beds

having different lithology and density.

The main purpose is to know depth of subsurface sedimentary

beds and their alignment and structure like horizontal beds,
inclined beds, folds faulted beds etc.
 GE OP H Y S IC AL S URV E Y S IN H Y D R OC A R BON EXPLORATION

• Seismic Survey
Geophysics PEGS2055

•The elastic waves (P-waves or primary waves)

while propagating through sedimentary beds, part of en-
ergy will bounce back whenever they strike boundaries of
rock beds having different densities of hardness.

•These reflections are received by geophones which in

tur record on photographic film digitally along with time if
their arrival which is called seismogram.

•Contrasts in seismic behavior between a sandstone-

shale contact or a sandstone-carbonate contact produce re-
flection.

•Magnitude and polarity of the reflection depend upon poros-

ity, cementation, density and fluid content of the overlying
and underlying rock beds.
 GE OP H Y S IC AL S URV E Y S IN H Y D R OC A R BON EXPLORATION

Seismic Survey
Energy of reflected waves decreases with increasing depth
Geophysics PEGS2055

resulting in decreasing resolution (poor reflection).

Acoustic impedance, the product of density and velocity.
Strength or amplitude of the reflection and its polarity depend
on the acoustical impedance of adjacent beds.

Positive reflection Negative reflection

(soft to hard rock) (hard to soft rock)
- shale to - carbonate to
carbonate shale
- shale to tight - tight sand to
sand shale
- gas sand to - shale to gas
shale sand
 GE OP H Y S IC AL S URV E Y S IN H Y D R OC A R BON EXPLORATION

Seismic Survey
Geophysics PEGS2055

3D seismic surveys differs from 2D seismic in two essential

respects:
- 3D shoots a much tighter grid greatly increasing
the definition of the prospect.
- The analyst can view the prospect in any angle.

4D seismic surveys involves time as the fourth dimension. A

reservoir is re-shot on a regular basis to monitor recovery of
oil.
 G E O PH YSIC A L SU RV EY S IN H Y D R O C A R B O N EXPLORATION

Seismic Survey - Seismic Image

Geophysics PEGS2055
 GE OP H Y S IC AL S URV E Y S IN H Y D R OC A R BON EXPLORATION

Well Logging
Geophysics PEGS2055

Well logs are used to identify

and correlate various lithounits,
identify potential reservoir
rocks, and nature of fluids they
contain.

Various types of logs are

present like drillers logs,
sample logs, electrical logs,
gamma-ray, neutron logs,
caliper logs, geochemical
logs etc.
 G E O PH YSIC A L SU RV EY S IN H Y D R O C A R B O N EXPLORATION

Well Logging – Log Responses

Geophysics PEGS2055