Module 4-Part2

Services and Support- System administration, Availability,

Reliability, Scalability, Observability, Agility, Serviceability.
Software Distribution, Performance, Network management.
Remote Systems Management- RDP, Telnet, SSH, Security.
LAN and Network Management issues, Training,
Connectivity, Communication interface technology,
Interprocess communication, Wide area network
technologies, Network Acquisition, PC-level processing
unit, X-terminals, Server hardware.
Client/ Sever Applications-Connectivity

• OSI Reference Model

• The OSI model provides a standard framework for developing interoperable network
products.
• Large organizations use OSI principles to integrate heterogeneous LAN environments
into global networks.
• The OSI model has seven layers, each handling a specific networking function:
• OSI Layers & Functions
1.Physical Layer
• Defines physical connections, electrical standards, and cabling types (e.g., Ethernet IEEE 802.3,
Token Ring IEEE 802.5).
• Includes serial interfaces like EIA232 and X.21.
2.Data Link Layer
• Handles error detection/correction and network access control.
• Divided into:
• MAC (Media Access Control) – Manages token passing and collision detection.
• LLC (Logical Link Control) – Handles data packet transmission.
OSI Reference Model

3. Network Layer
•Responsible for routing and addressing data across networks.
•Assigns unique network addresses and segments data into packets.
4.Transport Layer
•Ensures error-free, end-to-end transmission.
•Manages flow control and allows multiple transport addresses to share a single network
address.
5. Session Layer
•Manages communication sessions between two processors.
•Handles session creation, maintenance, and termination.
6. Presentation Layer
•Translates data formats between different systems.
•Ensures that data is readable across platforms.
7. Application Layer
•Provides interfaces for applications to communicate over the network.
•Messages enter and exit the OSI protocol stack at this level.
OSI Reference Model
Communications Interface Technology
1. Network Communication Basics
• Communication between client workstations and servers occurs via:
• Physical infrastructure (cables, devices)
• Software (protocol implementations)
• Four essential components of network communication:
• Sender: Device that creates and transmits data.
• Message: Digital data being sent.
• Medium: Physical material (wires, airwaves) carrying the data.
• Receiver: Destination device.
2. Communication Protocols & OSI Model
• Devices follow protocols to communicate effectively.
• The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model by ISO consists of seven layers, each
defining specific network functions and protocols.
Communications Interface Technology…..

Components Required for Network Communication

• Network Interface Card (NIC)
• Software Driver
• Communication Protocol Stack
• Various protocols and hardware components are used, such as:
• LAN Cabling, WAN, Ethernet, IEEE NIC, Token Ring, FDDI.
1. Network Interface Card (NIC)
• Connects a computer to a network.
• Controls data flow between the computer and network.
• Contains both hardware and software to handle network protocols.
2. LAN (Local Area Network) Cabling
• LANs connect multiple computers in a small geographical area (2-5 km).
• Transmission rates range from 1 Mbps to 100 Mbps.
• Common in high-speed wireless networks, fast Ethernet.
• Used in centralized server farms requiring high-speed data transfer.
Communications Interface Technology…..

3. WAN (Wide Area Network)

• Covers large geographic areas (cities, countries).
• Operates at Physical, Data-Link, and Network layers of OSI model.
• Uses switching nodes for data transfer.
• Utilizes routing technology to find paths between source and destination.
• Implemented via circuit switching, packet switching, frame relay, ATM, and wireless
networks.
• WAN-specific devices include:
• WAN switches, access servers, bridges, gateways, modems, routers, etc.
4. ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode)
• Connection-oriented network technology.
• Uses small fixed-size cells (53 bytes) for data transmission.
• Reduces jitter and delays, ideal for voice & video.
• Supports two service categories:
• Real-Time Services (CBR, rtVBR)
• Non-Real-Time Services
Communications Interface Technology…..

5. Ethernet
• Most widely used LAN technology (over 84% adoption worldwide).
• Uses a shared transmission medium (coaxial cables, twisted pair, fiber optics).
• Characteristics:
• Simple implementation & management
• Cost-effective
• Flexible topology
• Interoperable standards
• Two key Ethernet components:
• Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) (PCs, file servers)
• Data Communication Equipment (DCE) (Switches, routers, modems)
6. Token Ring
• Developed by IBM, standardized as IEEE 802.5.
• Uses token-passing for data transmission.
• Prevents collisions by ensuring only one device transmits at a time.
• More reliable and efficient than early Ethernet implementations.
Communications Interface Technology…..
7. FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface)
• High-speed fiber-optic LAN technology.
• Supports dual-ring architecture:
• Primary ring (data transmission)
• Secondary ring (backup or additional bandwidth)
• Can extend up to 200 km and support thousands of users.
• Higher reliability and performance compared to Ethernet.
8. TCP/IP (Internet Protocol Suite)
• Standard protocol suite for internet and network communication.
• Key components:
• TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) – Ensures reliable data transfer.
• IP (Internet Protocol) – Handles addressing and routing.
• Used for:
• Connecting different networks.
• Routing traffic through routers and bridges.
• Standard for most commercial networks.
Communications Interface Technology…..

9. SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol)

• Used for network monitoring & management.
• SNMP network consists of:
• Managed devices (routers, switches, servers).
• Agents (software modules on managed devices).
• Network Management Systems (NMSs) (monitoring tools).
• Enables remote network monitoring and control.
10. NFS (Network File System)
• Developed by Sun Microsystems for file sharing over networks.
• Allows clients to access remote files as if they were local.
• Uses ONC RPC (Remote Procedure Call) for communication.
• Requires:
• NFS daemon (NFSD) on the server.
• Configured exports to determine shared files.
• Client-side mounting for access.
Communications Interface Technology…..

11. SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)

• Standard protocol for email transmission.
• Client-server model:
• Mail User Agent (MUA) (email clients) send emails.
• Mail Transfer Agents (MTA) relay emails between servers.
• Works with DNS MX records to route emails.
• Uses SMTP-AUTH for authentication but does not prevent spam.
 Interprocess Communication (IPC)
• Interprocess Communication (IPC) defines the format for communication between
processes, particularly in client/server models. It is essential in multitasking environments
where multiple tasks operate independently while exchanging requests and responses.
Importance of IPC
• Ensures seamless communication between processes, whether on a single machine or across a
network (LAN/WAN).
• Integral to multitasking operating systems.
• Used in client/server applications for efficient data exchange.
Key Features of IPC
• Protocol for data transmission: Defines how data is sent and received.
• Queuing mechanism: Supports asynchronous data processing.
• Many-to-one support: Enables multiple clients to communicate with a single server.
• Network support: Works across different locations with security and recovery mechanisms.
• Remote procedure support: Facilitates invoking remote services.
• Support for complex data structures: Allows efficient data handling.
• Standard programming language interface: Ensures compatibility across systems.
Interprocess Communication (IPC)…..
Peer-to-Peer Protocols
• Unlike traditional hierarchical protocols, peer-to-peer protocols enable equal
communication between network nodes.
• Used in client/server models for efficient task synchronization.
• Examples: NetBIOS, APPC, Named Pipes.
1. NetBIOS (Network Basic I/O System)
• Interface between transport and session layers, developed by IBM and Sytek (1984).
• Supports Ethernet, Token Ring, ARCnet, StarLAN, and serial LANs.
• Provides essential commands categorized into:
• General services: Reset, Status, Cancel, Alert, Unlink.
• Name services: Add, Delete, Find (logical naming of network adapters).
• Session services: Reliable connection, sequence tracking, packet acknowledgment.
• Datagram services: Unreliable but efficient transmission, including broadcast/multicast.
Interprocess Communication (IPC)…..

2. Application Program-to-Program Communication (APPC)

• Enables peer-to-peer communication across SNA networks (IBM standard).
• Implements LU6.2 protocol for remote SQL access and procedure calls.
• Key features:
• API-based communication (CPI-C).
• Half-duplex, but supports parallel sessions for efficiency.
• Handles multiple sessions, error management, and parameter passing.
3. Named Pipes
• IPC mechanism for peer-to-peer processing between unrelated processes on a local
machine or LAN (no WAN support).
• A server creates a pipe, and multiple clients can access it.
• Key advantages:
• Integrates with file systems.
• Provides local and remote communication.
• Supports Remote Procedure Calls (RPCs) for location-independent processing.
Interprocess Communication (IPC)…..
4. Semaphores (Process Synchronization)
• Used for synchronizing concurrent processes that share resources.
• Ensures serialized access to shared data.
• Two types:
• Disk-based semaphores: Reliable but slower; used when operations must be recorded for recovery.
• D-RAM-based semaphores: Faster but may lose data during system failures.
5. Shared Memory
• Allocates memory in a named segment to allow multiple processes to access it.
• Each process must implement synchronization techniques to maintain data integrity.
• Typically used for rapid access to infrequently updated data.
6. Queues (Message-based IPC)
• Multiple processes can add messages to a queue, while a single process retrieves them.
• Supports asynchronous communication.
• Used in file servers to handle multiple client requests.
• Works within a machine and across LANs/WANs.
Interprocess Communication (IPC)…..
7. Dynamic Data Exchange (DDE)
• API-based protocol for message-based data exchange in Windows/OS/2
environments.
• Allows applications to create hot links for real-time data sharing.
• Expands desktop integration capabilities in client/server environments.
8. Remote Procedure Calls (RPCs)
• Enables a process to execute a procedure on a remote server as if it were local.
• Often used with Named Pipes for transparent communication.
9. Object Linking and Embedding (OLE)
• Lets users manipulate data (text, numbers, graphics) without worrying about the
software used to create it.
• Converts documents into collections of objects, each linked to its original application.
• Supports data sharing between applications.
Wide Area Network (WAN) Technologies
1. Importance of WAN Bandwidth
• WAN bandwidth is critical for efficient data communications.
• Traditional traffic modeling is difficult due to unpredictable application demands.
• With distributed computing and large file transfers (e.g., email attachments), network
planning becomes more complex.
• "Bandwidth-on-demand" is a key concept to address fluctuating needs.
2. Challenges in Network Management
• Rapid application development shortens the lifecycle of network redesign.
• Migration from host-centric to client/server environments makes predicting network
requirements harder.
• Network managers must seek cost-effective, flexible technologies to handle evolving
demands.
3. Emerging WAN Services
• Virtual Services & Distance-Insensitive Pricing
• Telecom companies have excess capacity, allowing for pricing that does not depend on distance.
• This helps in designing distributed computing environments without concern for data placement.
Wide Area Network (WAN) Technologies…..
Frame Relay
• Frame Relay is a packet-switching network protocol that is designed to work at the data link layer of
the network.

• It is used to connect Local Area Networks (LANs) and transmit data across Wide Area Networks
(WANs).

• It is a better alternative to a point-to-point network for connecting multiple nodes that require
separate dedicated links to be established between each pair of nodes.

• It allows transmission of different size packets and dynamic bandwidth allocation.

• Also, it provides a congestion control mechanism to reduce the network overheads due to
congestion. It does not have an error control and flow management mechanism.
Wide Area Network (WAN) Technologies…..
Frame Relay
• Components: Requires an access line and a Committed Information Rate (CIR).
• Flexibility: Can exceed CIR at times for efficient transfers.
• Virtual Private Networks (VPNs): Uses virtual circuits over a shared public infrastructure.
• Security: Defined closed user groups prevent unauthorized access.
• Advantages:
1.High speed
2.Scalable
3.Reduced network congestion
4.Cost-efficient
5.Secured connection
• Disadvantages:
1.Lacks error control mechanism
2.Delay in packet transfer
3.Less reliable
Wide Area Network (WAN) Technologies…..
Switched Multimegabit Data Service (SMDS)
• High-Speed Cell-Relay Service: Uses 53-byte ATM-like cells for transmission.
• Supports Mixed Media: Handles voice, video, and data traffic.
• Connectionless: Unlike Frame Relay, does not require pre-established circuits.
• Precursor to ATM: Provides early features of Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM).
How SMDS Works
• SMDS operates over a packet-switched network using a connectionless protocol.
• Data is divided into small packets (cells) and transmitted independently across
the network.
• The network routes each packet based on its destination address, similar to how
IP-based networks function.
Wide Area Network (WAN) Technologies…..
ATM in WAN
Overview of ATM in WAN
• Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a high-speed, cell-switching, and multiplexing
technology used in Wide Area Networks (WANs) for transmitting voice, video, and data over
a unified network. It is designed for low-latency, high-throughput networking, making it ideal
for large-scale enterprise and carrier networks.
Key Features of ATM
• Cell-Based Switching: Uses fixed-size 53-byte cells (5-byte header + 48-byte payload), which
allows efficient transmission and reduced delay variation.
• High-Speed Performance: Supports data transfer rates from 1.5 Mbps (T1) to 622 Mbps (OC-
12) and beyond.
• Quality of Service (QoS): Provides multiple service classes for different types of data (voice,
video, and data).
• Scalability: Can operate in LAN, MAN, and WAN environments, making it suitable for both
small and large networks.
• Connection-Oriented Communication: Establishes virtual circuits before data transmission,
ensuring reliable data delivery.
Wide Area Network (WAN) Technologies…..
• ATM in WAN
ATM Network Components
• ATM Switches: Core devices that manage cell switching and routing.
• ATM End Systems: Devices like workstations and routers that generate and receive ATM traffic.
• Virtual Circuits (VCs): Logical connections established before communication, classified into:
• Permanent Virtual Circuits (PVCs): Predefined, always available connections.
• Switched Virtual Circuits (SVCs): Dynamically established and released connections.
Advantages of ATM in WAN
• High Throughput: Handles large volumes of traffic efficiently.
• Low Latency & Jitter: Ideal for real-time applications like VoIP and video streaming.
• Integrated Services: Supports multiple traffic types (voice, video, and data) on a single network.
• Quality of Service (QoS): Provides guaranteed bandwidth and prioritization for critical applications.
Disadvantages of ATM in WAN
• High Complexity: Requires specialized hardware and expertise to manage.
• High Cost: More expensive than newer technologies like MPLS and Ethernet WAN.
• Fixed Cell Size Overhead: 53-byte cell structure introduces inefficiency, especially for small data packets.
• Declining Adoption: Replaced by MPLS (Multiprotocol Label Switching) and Ethernet WAN in modern networks.
Applications of ATM in WAN
• Telecommunications Backbone: Used by carriers for high-speed, QoS-driven transport.
• Financial Networks: Supports real-time trading and transactions.
• Multimedia Streaming: Ensures low-latency video and audio transmission.
• Corporate WANs: Connects remote offices with guaranteed bandwidth.
Wide Area Network (WAN) Technologies…..

Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)

• Digital Communication Over Public Phone Networks:
• Provides speeds up to 64 Kbps, significantly faster than modems (9.6 Kbps).
• Components:
• B-Channel: Handles voice and data.
• D-Channel: Manages call setup and control.
• Applications:
• Remote LAN access for field workers.
• Video conferencing and multimedia communication.
• Help desk remote support.
Wide Area Network (WAN) Technologies…..
Network Management Challenges
• Client/Server Applications Require Distributed Management:
• Data and applications may reside remotely, increasing complexity.
• Network Control Centers (NCCs) are essential for managing resources.
• Key Layers of Management System Architecture:
• Presentation Layer: User interface and management tools.
• Reduction Layer: Filters and consolidates network information.
• Gathering Layer: Device agents collect diagnostics and statistics.
Wide Area Network (WAN) Technologies…..

Network Management Challenges

• OSI Management Areas:
• Fault management
• Performance monitoring
• Inventory management
• Accounting
• Configuration control
• Standardization & Future Trends
• Dominant Platforms: IBM Netview/6000, HP OpenView, OSF’s DME.
• Management Integration Challenges:
• Distributed networks lack the centralized control of mainframes.
• Solutions like Tivoli, Remedy Action Request System, and OpenVision help automate management.
• Strategic Importance of Network Control:
• "Whoever controls the network controls the business."
• Network design must balance voice, data, video, and other unstructured data needs.
Hardware/Network Acquisition
Importance of Hardware Standards
• Organizations should define hardware standards for different user classes to simplify selection and
gain volume pricing discounts.
• Standards help ensure compatibility, performance, and cost-effectiveness.
Client Hardware Selection Criteria
• Processor Type & Coprocessor Capability: Determines computing power.
• Internal Bus Structure: Affects data transfer speeds.
• Base Unit Size: Dictates hardware expansion options.
• Graphical User Interface (GUI) Requirements: VGA or better screen drivers are necessary.
• Monitor Size & Resolution: Larger screens required for multi-window or multimedia applications.
• Impact on Productivity: Poor resolution leads to fatigue and inefficiency.
Network Bandwidth & Connectivity
• Adequate bandwidth is crucial for desktop responsiveness.
• Router-based Internetworking: Needed for frequent off-LAN access, supporting multi-protocol
networking.
• Bridges: Suitable for occasional off-LAN access.
• Ethernet, Fast Ethernet, and FDDI: Increasingly common for multimedia applications
PC-Level Processing Units
PC-Level Processing Units
• Client/Server Processing: Requires powerful processors.
• 32-bit Processors: Essential for protected-mode addressing (e.g., Intel 486SX, 486DX, Pentium).
• I/O Bus Requirements:
• 32-bit I/O bus (VESA VL-bus, PCI) needed for high data transfer applications.
• Increasing need for powerful desktop configurations due to application integration (DCE, OLE, DOE).
• Minimum Requirements:
• 1994: 33MHz Intel 486SX.
• 1995: 50MHz Intel 486DX or 33MHz Intel Pentium.
Macintosh Systems
• Mac System 7: Intuitive GUI, best for general productivity.
• Recommended Specs (1994): Motorola 68040, 8MB RAM, 120MB Disk.
• PowerPC Evolution (1995): Expected to integrate with AIX & Windows, improving cost-performance ratio.
Notebooks (Laptops)
• Growth in Market Demand: Portable computing for remote users.
• Limitations: Slower disk I/O performance.
• Minimum Configuration: 33MHz Intel 486SX, 8MB RAM, 140MB disk.
• Additional Features:
• Battery life of at least two hours.
• GUI compression software for remote access.
• V.32/V.32bis modems with compression (9600–14400bps).
PC-Level Processing Units
Pen-Based Clients & Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs)
• Pen-Based Systems: Used for selection, verification, and inquiry tasks.
• PDA Market Growth (1993 Onward):
• Increasing RAM & flash memory capacity.
• Expected price range: $500–$1000.
• Windows-like OS, 20MHz 486SX processor, 4MB RAM.
• Future Developments (1995+):
• 16MB RAM & 32MB Flash memory.
• Wireless communication for accessing electronic news & books.
UNIX Workstations & X-Terminals
• UNIX Workstations: More powerful than PCs, used for intensive processing.
• X-Terminals:
• Only handle display functions; processing is managed by a UNIX/Windows server.
• Minimum memory requirement: 4–8MB RAM.
Server Hardware
Server Hardware
• Multiuser Environment Considerations:
• Prefer 32-bit preemptive multitasking OS with storage protection.
• Popular choices: Intel-based tower PCs, SMPs, and UNIX servers.
• Symmetric Multi-Processing (SMP):
• Offered by IBM, Compaq, and NetFrame.
• Used for large-scale applications and databases.
• RAID Storage: Ensures high reliability and performance.
Data Storage Solutions
• Permanent Storage Requirements: Depend on application needs.
• Magnetic Disk (SCSI-2):
• Industry standard for high-performance storage.
• High-capacity cache (256K+) improves performance.
• Increasing demand due to GUI & multimedia.
• Mirrored Disk (Redundancy):
• Protects against disk failure by writing data to two disks.
• Enhances performance with parallel read operations.
Server Hardware..
•RAID-Disk Array:
•Distributes data across multiple disks for high availability & speed.
•Requires large cache for peak performance.
•Tape Storage (Backup & Distribution):
•DAT (Digital Audio Tape) provides 1.2GB capacity.
•Used for low-cost backups and large file transfers.
•Optical Disks:
•Suitable for high-volume, low-activity storage (e.g., images, multimedia backups).

Comparison of Optical Storage Technologies

Server Hardware..

Network Interface Cards (NICs)

• Purpose: Connect client/server processors to LANs.
• Types of NICs:
• Token Ring: Originally IBM-only, now widely available (4/16 Mbps).
• Ethernet (IEEE 802.3): Most widely supported, 10Mbps (10BaseT standard).
• Fast Ethernet & ATM: Future-proofing LANs with speeds of 100Mbps+.
• FDDI (100 Mbps): Preferred for high-speed fiber-based networks.
• CDDI (Copper-based FDDI): Fast Ethernet alternative over copper cables.
Power Protection Devices
• Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS):
• Provides power backup during outages.
• Prevents data loss by allowing graceful shutdown.
• Surge Protectors:
• Protects hardware from power fluctuations.
• Must be used for all servers, clients, and peripherals.