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Chapter 2 of 'Operating System Concepts' discusses the structures and services provided by operating systems, including user interfaces, system calls, and resource management. It outlines various types of system calls related to process control, file management, device management, and communication. Additionally, it describes different operating system structures such as simple, layered, microkernel, and modular approaches, highlighting their benefits and drawbacks.
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
12 views41 pages

Ch2 Mod Upload

Chapter 2 of 'Operating System Concepts' discusses the structures and services provided by operating systems, including user interfaces, system calls, and resource management. It outlines various types of system calls related to process control, file management, device management, and communication. Additionally, it describes different operating system structures such as simple, layered, microkernel, and modular approaches, highlighting their benefits and drawbacks.
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Chapter 2: Operating-System

Structures

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Chapter 2: Operating-System Structures

 Operating System Services


 User Operating System Interface
 System Calls
 Types of System Calls
 Operating System Structure

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.2 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Operating System Services
 Operating systems provide an environment for execution of programs
and services to programs and users
 One set of operating-system services provides functions that are
helpful to the user:
 User interface - Almost all operating systems have a user
interface (UI).
 Varies between Command-Line (CLI), Graphics User
Interface (GUI), Batch
 Program execution - The system must be able to load a program
into memory and to run that program, end execution, either
normally or abnormally (indicating error)
 I/O operations - A running program may require I/O, which may
involve a file or an I/O device

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.3 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Operating System Services (Cont.)
 One set of operating-system services provides functions that are helpful to the
user (Cont.):
 File-system manipulation - The file system is of particular interest.
Programs need to read and write files and directories, create and delete
them, search them, list file Information, permission management.
 Communications – Processes may exchange information, on the same
computer or between computers over a network
 Communications may be via shared memory or through message
passing (packets moved by the OS)
 Error detection – OS needs to be constantly aware of possible errors
 May occur in the CPU and memory hardware, in I/O devices, in user
program
 For each type of error, OS should take the appropriate action to
ensure correct and consistent computing
 Debugging facilities can greatly enhance the user’s and
programmer’s abilities to efficiently use the system

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.4 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Operating System Services (Cont.)
 Another set of OS functions exists for ensuring the efficient operation of the
system itself via resource sharing
 Resource allocation - When multiple users or multiple jobs running
concurrently, resources must be allocated to each of them
 Many types of resources - CPU cycles, main memory, file storage,
I/O devices.
 Accounting - To keep track of which users use how much and what
kinds of computer resources
 Protection and security - The owners of information stored in a
multiuser or networked computer system may want to control use of that
information, concurrent processes should not interfere with each other
 Protection involves ensuring that all access to system resources is
controlled
 Security of the system from outsiders requires user authentication,
extends to defending external I/O devices from invalid access
attempts

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.5 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
A View of Operating System Services

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.6 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
User Operating System Interface - CLI

CLI or command interpreter allows direct command entry


 Sometimes implemented in kernel, sometimes by systems
program
 Sometimes multiple flavors implemented – shells
 Primarily fetches a command from user and executes it
 Sometimes commands built-in, sometimes just names of
programs
 If the latter, adding new features doesn’t require shell
modification

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.7 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Bourne Shell Command Interpreter

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.8 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
User Operating System Interface - GUI

 User-friendly desktop metaphor interface


 Usually mouse, keyboard, and monitor
 Icons represent files, programs, actions, etc
 Various mouse buttons over objects in the interface cause
various actions (provide information, options, execute function,
open directory (known as a folder)
 Invented at Xerox PARC
 Many systems now include both CLI and GUI interfaces
 Microsoft Windows is GUI with CLI “command” shell
 Apple Mac OS X is “Aqua” GUI interface with UNIX kernel
underneath and shells available
 Unix and Linux have CLI with optional GUI interfaces (CDE,
KDE, GNOME)

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.9 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Touchscreen Interfaces

 Touchscreen devices require new


interfaces
 Mouse not possible or not desired
 Actions and selection based on
gestures
 Virtual keyboard for text entry
 Voice commands.

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.10 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
The Mac OS X GUI

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.11 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
System Calls
 System calls provides an interface to the services Made
available by an operating system.
 These calls are generally available as functions written in C
and C++.
 Example to illustrate how system calls are used:
 writing a simple program to read data from one file and
copy them to another file.
 The first input that the program will need is the names of the
two files: the input file and the output file.
 These names can be specified in many ways, depending on
the operating-system design.
 One approach is to pass the names of the two files as part
of the command—for example, the UNIX cp command:
cp in.txt out.txt
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.12 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Promopt for file names
 Selection of file names

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.13 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Example of System Calls
 System call sequence to copy the contents of one file to another file

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.14 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Application Programming Interface

 Frequently, systems execute thousands of system calls per


second.
 Most programmers never see this level of detail, however.
Typically, applicationdevelopers design programs according
to an application programming interface (API).
 The API specifies a set of functions that are available to an
application programmer, including the parameters that are
passed to each function and the return values the
programmer can expect.

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.15 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Three of the most common APIs available to application
programmers are the Windows API for Windows systems
 The POSIX API for POSIX-based systems (which include virtually
all versions of UNIX, Linux, and macOS)
 The Java API for programs that run on the Java virtual machine.
 Behind the scenes, the functions that make up an API typically
invoke the actual system calls on behalf of the application
programmer.
 The Windows function CreateProcess() (which, unsurprisingly, is
used to create a new process) actually invokes the
NTCreateProcess() system call in the Windows kernel.

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.16 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Example of Standard API

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.17 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
API – System Call – OS Relationship

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.19 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
System Call Parameter Passing
 Often, more information is required than simply identity of desired
system call
 Exact type and amount of information vary according to OS
and call
 Three general methods used to pass parameters to the OS
 Simplest: pass the parameters in registers
 In some cases, may be more parameters than registers
 Parameters stored in a block, or table, in memory, and address
of block passed as a parameter in a register
 This approach taken by Linux and Solaris
 Parameters placed, or pushed, onto the stack by the program
and popped off the stack by the operating system
 Block and stack methods do not limit the number or length of
parameters being passed

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.20 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Parameter Passing via Table

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.21 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Types of System Calls
 Process control
 create process, terminate process
 end, abort
 load, execute
 get process attributes, set process attributes
 wait for time
 wait event, signal event
 allocate and free memory
 Dump memory if error
 Debugger for determining bugs, single step execution
 Locks for managing access to shared data between processes

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.22 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Types of System Calls

 File management
 create file, delete file
 open, close file
 read, write, reposition
 get and set file attributes
 Device management
 request device, release device
 read, write, reposition
 get device attributes, set device attributes
 logically attach or detach devices

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.23 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Types of System Calls (Cont.)

 Information maintenance
 get time or date, set time or date
 get system data, set system data
 get and set process, file, or device attributes
 Communications
 create, delete communication connection
 send, receive messages if message passing model to host
name or process name
 From client to server
 Shared-memory model create and gain access to memory
regions
 transfer status information
 attach and detach remote devices

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.24 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Types of System Calls (Cont.)

 Protection
 Control access to resources
 Get and set permissions
 Allow and deny user access

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.25 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Examples of Windows and Unix System Calls

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.26 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Standard C Library Example
 C program invoking printf() library call, which calls write() system call

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.27 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Operating System Structure
 General-purpose OS is very large program
 Various ways to structure ones
 Simple structure – MS-DOS
 More complex -- UNIX
 Layered – an abstrcation
 Microkernel -Mach

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.30 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Simple Structure -- MS-DOS

 MS-DOS – written to provide the


most functionality in the least
space
 Not divided into modules
 Although MS-DOS has some
structure, its interfaces and
levels of functionality are not
well separated

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.31 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Non Simple Structure -- UNIX

UNIX – limited by hardware functionality, the original UNIX


operating system had limited structuring. The UNIX OS
consists of two separable parts
 Systems programs
 The kernel
 Consists of everything below the system-call interface
and above the physical hardware
 Provides the file system, CPU scheduling, memory
management, and other operating-system functions; a
large number of functions for one level

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.32 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Traditional UNIX System Structure
Beyond simple but not fully layered

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.33 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Layered Approach

 The operating system is divided


into a number of layers (levels),
each built on top of lower
layers. The bottom layer (layer
0), is the hardware; the highest
(layer N) is the user interface.
 With modularity, layers are
selected such that each uses
functions (operations) and
services of only lower-level
layers

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.34 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Microkernel System Structure
 Moves as much from the kernel into user space
 Mach example of microkernel
 Mac OS X kernel (Darwin) partly based on Mach
 Communication takes place between user modules using
message passing
 Benefits:
 Easier to extend a microkernel
 Easier to port the operating system to new architectures
 More reliable (less code is running in kernel mode)
 More secure
 Detriments:
 Performance overhead of user space to kernel space
communication

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.35 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Microkernel System Structure

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.36 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Modules
 Many modern operating systems implement loadable kernel
modules
 Uses object-oriented approach
 Each core component is separate
 Each talks to the others over known interfaces
 Each is loadable as needed within the kernel
 Overall, similar to layers but with more flexible
 Linux, Solaris, etc

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.37 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Solaris Modular Approach

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.38 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Hybrid Systems

 Most modern operating systems are actually not one pure model
 Hybrid combines multiple approaches to address performance,
security, usability needs
 Linux and Solaris kernels in kernel address space, so
monolithic, plus modular for dynamic loading of functionality
 Windows mostly monolithic, plus microkernel for different
subsystem personalities
 Apple Mac OS X hybrid, layered, Aqua UI plus Cocoa
programming environment
 Below is kernel consisting of Mach microkernel and BSD Unix
parts, plus I/O kit and dynamically loadable modules (called
kernel extensions)

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.39 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Mac OS X Structure

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.40 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
iOS

 Apple mobile OS for iPhone, iPad


 Structured on Mac OS X, added functionality
 Does not run OS X applications natively
 Also runs on different CPU architecture
(ARM vs. Intel)
 Cocoa Touch Objective-C API for
developing apps
 Media services layer for graphics, audio,
video
 Core services provides cloud computing,
databases
 Core operating system, based on Mac OS X
kernel

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.41 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Android
 Developed by Open Handset Alliance (mostly Google)
 Open Source
 Similar stack to IOS
 Based on Linux kernel but modified
 Provides process, memory, device-driver management
 Adds power management
 Runtime environment includes core set of libraries and Dalvik
virtual machine
 Apps developed in Java plus Android API
 Java class files compiled to Java bytecode then translated
to executable than runs in Dalvik VM
 Libraries include frameworks for web browser (webkit), database
(SQLite), multimedia, smaller libc

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.42 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Android Architecture

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 2.43 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
End of Chapter 2

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013

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