MODULE 1

Basics of Networking
INTRODUCTION
 Data- and information-centric operations
 Quality of any particular information is as good as the variety and strength of the data that
generates this information
 Speed at which data is updated to all members of a team- dictates the advantage that the team
has over others in generating useful information from the gathered data.
 Speed and nature of germane information are crucial for maintaining an edge over others in
the same area
 Today’s world relies heavily on data and networking, which allows for the instant availability
of information from anywhere on the earth at any moment
 Networking refers to the linking of computers and communication network devices (also referred
to as hosts), which interconnect through a network (Internet or Intranet) and are separated by
unique device identifiers (Internet protocol, IP addresses and media access control, MAC
addresses).
 These hosts may be connected by a single path or through multiple paths for sending and receiving
data.
 The data transferred between the hosts may be text, images, or videos, which are in the form of
binary bit streams
 Network Types: classified according to various parameters:

1) Type of connection,
2) physical topology, and
3) reach of the network
 These classifications are helpful in deciding the requirements of a network setup and provide insights into the
appropriate selection of a network type for the setup.
1. Connection types: Depending on the way a host communicates with other hosts,
 computer networks are of two types

i. Point-to-point and
ii. Point-to-multipoint.
Point-to-point: Point-to-point connections are used to establish direct connections between two hosts.
 These networks were designed to work over duplex links
 functional for both synchronous as well as asynchronous systems.
 point to point connections find usage for specific purposes such as in optical networks.
 A Request for Comments (RFC) is a formal document from the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
that contains specifications and organizational notes about topics related to the internet and computer
networking, such as routing, addressing and transport technologies -to-point Requests for Comments
(RFCs)
The following requests for comments (RFCs) are associated with point- to-point communication and its
derivatives.
 RFC 1332: point-to-point (PPP) Internet protocol control protocol (IPCP);
 RFC 1661: PPP;
 RFC 5072: IP Version 6 over PPP;
 RFC 2516: PPP over Ethernet;
 RFC 1963: PPP serial data transport protocol;
 RFC 1962: PPP compression control protocol (CCP);
 RFC 1990: PPP multilink protocol (MP);
 RFC 2615: PPP over SONET/SDH (synchronous optical networking/synchronous digital hierarchy).
 Point-to-multipoint: In a point-to-multipoint connection,
 more than two hosts share the same link.
 This type of configuration is similar to the one-to-many
connection type.
 find popular use in wireless networks and IP telephony
 channel is shared between the various hosts either spatially or
temporally
 spatial sharing of the channel is frequency division multiple
access (FDMA)
 Temporal sharing of channels include approaches such as time
division multiple access (TDMA).
 Each of the spectral and temporal sharing approaches has
various schemes and protocols for channel sharing in point-to-
multipoint networks
 Point-to-multipoint connections find popular use in present-
day networks, especially while enabling communication
between a massive number of connected devices
 There can be two ways of sharing capacity on the same link -
 Spatial sharing - In spatial sharing, two or more devices can utilize the link capacity
simultaneously.
 In this situation channel capacity is distributed (shared) between devices. There are many ways of
sharing channel capacity like Frequency division (details will come in upcoming lectures).
 Example: internet communication, Telephony communication.

• Temporal sharing - In temporal sharing, the devices take turns using the link one by one; hence,
they don't utilize the link simultaneously and the link is time-shared among them.
 In this situation all devices are given a time spam in which they can utilize that single link. At that
time other device will not send their data on link.it mean at a time only one device will send data
on link.
 Example: Mainframe computer working environment-workstations send data to this mainframe
computer.
2. Physical topology
 Depending on the physical manner in which communication paths between the hosts are connected,
computer networks can have the following four broad topologies—
i. Star,
ii. Mesh,
iii. Bus, and
iv. Ring.
 STAR TOPOLOGY

Features  In a star topology, every host has a point-to-point link to a central controller or hub. The
hosts cannot communicate with one another directly; they can only do so through the
central hub
 The central hub acts as the network traffic exchange
 For large-scale systems, the hub, essentially, has to be a powerful server to handle all the
simultaneous traffic flowing through it

Advantage  As there are fewer links (only one link per host), this topology is cheaper and easier to set
up
 Easy installation and the ease of fault identification within the network

Limitation  If the central hub remains uncompromised, link failures between a host and the hub do not
have a big effect on the network, except for the host that is affected
 Danger of a single point of failure- if the hub fails, the whole network fails
MESH TOPOLOGY

Features  In a mesh topology, every host is connected to every other host using a dedicated link (in a
point-to-point manner).
 This implies that for n hosts in a mesh, there are a total of n(n−1)/2 dedicated full duplex
links between the hosts
Advantage  robustness and resilience of the system- Even if a link is down or broken, the network is
still fully functional as there remain other pathways for the traffic to flow through
 security and privacy of the traffic as the data is only seen by the intended recipients and not
by all members of the network.
 the reduced data load on a single host, as every host in this network takes care of its traffic
load
Limitation  massive number of links makes the mesh topology expensive
 complexities in forming physical connections between devices and the cost of establishing
these links is high
BUS TOPOLOGY

Features  A bus topology follows the point-to-multipoint connection

 A backbone cable or bus serves as the primary traffic pathway between the hosts. The hosts
are connected to the main bus employing drop lines or taps.
Advantage  ease of installation.
 simple cabling procedure in which a single bus (backbone cable) can be used for an
organization
 Multiple drop lines and taps can be used to connect various hosts to the bus, making
installation very easy and cheap.
Limitation  There is a restriction on the length of the bus and the number of hosts that can be
simultaneously connected to the bus due to signal loss over the extended bus
 difficulty in fault localization within the network.
 RING TOPOLOGY

Features  A ring topology works on the principle of a point-to-point connection. Here, each host is
configured to have a dedicated point-to-point connection with its two immediate neighboring
hosts on either side of it through repeaters at each host
 The repetition of this system forms a ring
 The repeaters at each host capture the incoming signal intended for other hosts, regenerates
the bit stream, and passes it onto the next repeater

Advantage  Fault identification and set up of the ring topology is quite simple and straightforward

Limitation  high probability of a single point of failure. If even one repeater fails, the whole network goes
down
13
 Disadvantage
Topology Feature Advantage

Cheap;
Single point of failure;
Star Point-to-point ease of installation;
traffic visible to network entities
ease of fault identification
Resilient against single point of failures;
Costly;
Mesh Point-to-point scalable;
complex connections
traffic privacy and security ensured
Length of backbone cable limited;
Point-to- Ease of installation;
Bus number of hosts limited;
multipoint cheap
hard to localize faults
Ease of installation;
Ring Point-to-point cheap; Prone to single point of failure
ease of fault identification
Network reachability
 Computer networks are divided into four broad categories based on network reachability:

1. Personal area networks,

2. Local area networks,
3. Wide area networks, and
4. Metropolitan area networks.

 Personal Area Networks (PAN): PANs, as the name suggests,

 are mostly restricted to individual usage.
 A good example of PANs may be connected wireless headphones, wireless speakers, laptops,
smartphones, wireless keyboards, wireless mouse, and printers within a house.
 PANs are wireless networks, which make use of low-range and low-power technologies such as
Bluetooth.
 The reachability of PANs lies in the range of a few centimeters to a few meters.
Personal Area Networks (PAN)
Restriction  restricted to individual usage

Example  wireless headphones, wireless speakers, laptops, smartphones, wireless keyboards,

wireless mouse, and printers within a house

Reachability  reachability of PANs lies in the range of a few centimeters to a few meters.

Features  PANs are wireless networks, which make use of low-range and low-power technologies
such as Bluetooth.
Fault  high fault-tolerance levels
Tolerance
 LOCAL AREA NETWORKS (LAN)
Restriction  LANs are restricted to buildings, organizations, or campuses

Example  leased lines connected to the Internet

Reachability  the present-day data access rates within the LANs range from 100 Mbps to 1000 Mbps

Features  A LAN is a collection of hosts linked to a single network through wired or wireless
connections.
 Typically, a few leased lines connected to the Internet provide web access to the whole
organization or a campus; the lines are further redistributed to multiple hosts within the
LAN enabling hosts
 The hosts are much more in number than the actual direct lines to the Internet to access
the web from within the organization.
 This also allows the organization to define various access control policies for web
access within its hierarchy
Fault  data access rates within the LANs range from 100 Mbps to 1000 Mbps, with very high
Tolerance fault-tolerance levels
METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORKS
(MAN)
Restriction  given geographic location or city

Example  Internet service provider (ISP) supplying Internet connectivity to various

organizations within a city

Reachability  The reachability of a MAN lies between that of a LAN and a WAN

Features  MANs connect various organizations or buildings within a given geographic

location or city
 As MANs are costly, they may not be owned by individuals or even single
organizations
Fault  MANs tend to have moderate fault tolerance levels.
Tolerance
WIDE AREA NETWORKS (WAN)
Restriction  WANs are restricted within the boundaries of a state or country

Example  Public Switched Telephone Networks (PSTNs) or satellite-based links

Reachability  connect diverse geographic locations

Features  WANs typically connect diverse geographic locations.

 The data rate of WANs is in the order of a fraction of LAN’s data rate
 Due to the long transmission ranges, WANs tend to have more errors and noise
during transmission and are very costly to maintain.
Fault  The fault tolerance of WANs are also generally low.
Tolerance
Layered Network Models
 The intercommunication between hosts in any computer network, be it a large-scale or
a small-scale one, is built upon the premise of various task-specific layers.
 Two of the most commonly accepted and used traditional layered network models are
1. The open systems interconnection developed by the International Organization of
Standardization (ISO-OSI) reference model
2. The Internet protocol suite.

OSI Model
 The ISO-OSI (Open System Interconnect) model is a conceptual framework that
partitions any networked communication device into seven layers of abstraction, each
performing distinct tasks based on the underlying technology and internal structure of
the hosts.

 These seven layers, from bottom-up, are as follows:

1) Physical layer,
2) Data link layer,
3) Network layer,
4) Transport layer,
5) Session layer,
6) Presentation layer, and
7) Application layer.
Layer number 1. Physical layer

Location Media layer

Pdu Protocol data unit associated with this layer is referred to as a symbol.

Functions/ • The physical layer is responsible for taking care of the electrical and mechanical
responsibility operations of the host at the actual physical level.
• These operations include or deal with issues relating to signal generation, signal
transfer, voltages, the layout of cables, physical port layout, line impedances, and
signal loss.
• This layer is responsible for the topological layout of the network (star, mesh, bus,
or ring), communication mode (simplex, duplex, full duplex), and bit rate control
operations.
Examples Ethernet, FDDI, B8ZS, V.35, v.24, rj45
Layer number 2. Data link layer:

Location Media layer

Pdu Protocol data unit associated with this layer is referred to as a frame.

Functions/ • Responsible for establishment and termination of the connection between two hosts
responsibility • Detection and correction of errors during communication between two or more
connected hosts.

IEEE 802 divides the OSI layer 2 further into two sub-layers [2]:
[1] medium access control (MAC) - MAC is responsible for access control and
permissions
For connecting networked devices;
[2] logical link control (LLC)- LLC is mainly tasked with error checking, flow control,
and frame synchronization.

Examples Ieee 802.5/ 802.2, ieee 802.3/802.2, PPP, HDLC, frame relay, ATM, FDDI
Layer number 3. Network layer

Location Media layer

Pdu Protocol data unit associated with this layer is referred to as a packet

Functions/ • Network layer routes data to various hosts connected to different networks
responsibility through logical paths called virtual circuits.
• These logical paths may pass through other intermediate hosts (nodes) before
reaching the actual destination host.
• The primary tasks of this layer include addressing, sequencing of packets,
congestion control, error handling, and internetworking.
Examples DDP, IP, appletalk, IPX
Layer number 4. Transport layer:

Location Host layer

Pdu Protocol data unit associated with this layer is referred to as a segment or datagram.

Functions/ • Transport layer is responsible for end-to-end error recovery and flow control to
responsibility achieve a transparent transfer of data between hosts.
• This layer is responsible for keeping track of acknowledgments during variable-
length data transfer between hosts. In case of loss of data, or when no
acknowledgment is received, the transport layer ensures that the particular
erroneous data segment is re-sent to the receiving host.
Examples Spx, tcp, udp
Layer number 5. Session layer:

Location Host layer

Pdu Protocol data unit associated with this layer is referred to as a data.

Functions/ • It is responsible for establishing, controlling, and terminating of communication

responsibility between networked hosts.
• The session layer sees full utilization during operations such as remote procedure
calls and remote sessions.
Examples Netbios names, NFS, RPC,
Layer number 6. Presentation layer:

Location Host layer

Pdu Protocol data unit associated with this layer is referred to as a data.

Functions/ • It is mainly responsible for data format conversions and encryption tasks such
responsibility that the syntactic compatibility of the data is maintained across the network,
for which it is also referred to as the syntax layer.
Examples Encryption, ASCII, MIDI, PICT, JPEG, EBCDIC, TIFF, GIF, MPEG
Layer number 7. Application layer:

Location Host layer

Pdu Protocol data unit associated with this layer is referred to as a data.

Functions/ • It is directly accessible by an end-user through software apis (application

responsibility program interfaces) and terminals.
• Applications such as file transfers, ftp (file transfer protocol), e-mails, and
other such operations are initiated from this layer.
• The application layer deals with user authentication, identification of
communication hosts, quality of service, and privacy.
Examples SNMP, telnet, WWW browsers, HTTP, NFS, FTP
 Internet protocol suite

 The Internet protocol suite is yet another conceptual framework that provides levels of abstraction for
ease of understanding and development of communication and networked systems on the Internet.
However, the Internet protocol suite predates the OSI model and provides only four levels of
abstraction:
1) Link layer,
2) Internet layer,
3) Transport layer, and
4) Application layer.
 This collection of protocols is commonly referred to as the TCP/IP protocol suite as the foundation
technologies of this suite are transmission control protocol (TCP) and Internet protocol.
Link Layer:
 The first and base layer of the TCP/IP protocol suite is also known as the network interface layer.
 This layer is synonymous with the collective physical and data link layer of the OSI model.
 It enables the transmission of TCP/IP packets over the physical medium.
 According to its design principles, the link layer is independent of the medium in use, frame format, and
network access, enabling it to be used with a wide range of technologies such as the Ethernet, wireless LAN,
and the asynchronous transfer mode (ATM).

Internet Layer:
 Layer 2 of the TCP/IP protocol suite is somewhat synonymous to the network layer of the OSI model.
 It is responsible for addressing, address translation, data packaging, data disassembly and assembly,
routing, and packet delivery tracking operations.
 Some core protocols associated with this layer are address resolution protocol (ARP), Internet protocol
(IP), Internet control message protocol (ICMP), and Internet group management protocol (IGMP).
 This layer was built upon IPv4, which is gradually shifting to IPv6, enabling the accommodation of a
much more significant number of addresses and security measures.
Transport Layer:
 Layer 3 of the TCP/IP protocol suite is functionally synonymous with the transport layer of the OSI model.
 This layer is tasked with the functions of error control, flow control, congestion control, segmentation, and
addressing in an end-to-end manner; it is also independent of the underlying network.
 Transmission control protocol (TCP) and user datagram protocol (UDP) are the core protocols upon which this
layer is built, which in turn enables it to have the choice of providing connection-oriented or connectionless
services between two or more hosts or networked devices.

Application Layer:
 The functionalities of the application layer, layer 4, of the TCP/IP protocol suite are synonymous with the
collective functionalities of the OSI model’s session, presentation, and application layers.
 This layer enables an end-user to access the services of the underlying layers and defines the protocols for the
transfer of data.
 Hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP), file transfer protocol (FTP), simple mail transfer protocol (SMTP), domain
name system (DNS), routing information protocol (RIP), and simple network management protocol (SNMP) are
some of the core protocols associated with this layer.
 TCP/IP OSI Model
The full form of TCP/IP is Transmission Control Protocol/
The full form of OSI is Open Systems Interconnection.
Internet Protocol.

It is a communication protocol that is based on standard

It is a structured model which deals which the functioning
protocols and allows the connection of hosts over a
of a network.
network.

In 1982, the TCP/IP model became the standard language of In 1984, the OSI model was introduced by the International
ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network). Organisation of Standardization (ISO).

It comprises seven layers:

•Physical
It comprises of four layers:
•Data Link
•Network Interface
•Network
•Internet
•Transport
•Transport
•Session
•Application
•Presentation
•Application

It follows a horizontal approach. It follows a vertical approach.

An OSI Model is a reference model, based on which a
The TCP/IP is the implementation of the OSI Model.
network is created.
It is protocol dependent. It is protocol independent.
Emergence of IoT

Introduction
The Internet of Things (IoT) is the network of physical objects that contain embedded technology to
communicate and sense or interact with their internal states or the external environment.“ - Gartner Research
 Modern-day advent of network-connected devices has given rise to the popular paradigm (pattern or
model) of the Internet Of Things (IoT).
 Each second, the present-day internet allows massively heterogeneous traffic through it. This network
traffic consists of images, videos, music, speech, text, numbers, binary codes, machine status, banking
messages, data from sensors and actuators, healthcare data, data from vehicles, home automation system
status and control messages, military communications, and many more.
 This huge variety of data is generated from a massive number of connected devices, which may be directly
connected to the internet or connected through gateway devices.
 According to statistics from the information handling services, the total number of connected devices
globally is estimated to be around 25 billion.
 The traffic flowing through the internet can be attributed to legacy systems as well as modern-day systems.
 The miniaturization of electronics and the cheap affordability of technology is resulting in a surge of
connected devices, which in turn is leading to an explosion of traffic flowing through the internet.
 The evolution of smartphones. Cellular technology had become common and easily affordable.
 With time, the features of these devices evolved, and the dependence of various applications and services
on these gadgets on packet-based internet accesses started rapidly increasing.
 The present-day mobile phones (commonly referred to as smartphones) are more or less internet-based.
The range of applications on these gadgets such as messaging, video calling, e-mails, games, music
streaming, video streaming, and others are pendent on network provider allocated internet access or Wifi.
 As all technologies and domains are moving toward smart management of systems, the number of
sensor/actuator-based systems is rapidly increasing.
 With time, the need for location-independent access to monitored and controlled systems keep on rising.
 This rise in number leads to a further rise in the number of internet-connected devices.

 The original Internet intended for sending simple messages is now connected with all sorts of “Things”.
 These things can be legacy devices, modern-day computers, sensors, actuators, household appliances,
toys, clothes, shoes, vehicles, cameras, and anything which may benefit a product by increasing its
scientific value, accuracy, or even its cosmetic value.
 IoT is an anytime, anywhere, and anything network of internet-connected physical devices or systems capable
of sensing an environment and affecting the sensed environment intelligently.
 Achieved using low-power and low-form-factor embedded processors on-board the “things” connected to the
internet.
 IoT may be considered to be made up of connecting devices, machines, and tools; these things are made up of
sensors/actuators(is a device that converts energy into motion.) and processors, which connect to the internet
through wireless technologies.
 Any technology enabling access to the internet—be it wired or wireless—to be an IoT enabling technology.

 IoT enablers will be restricted to wireless IoT systems due to the much more severe operating constraints and
challenges faced by wireless devices as compared to wired systems.
 IoT systems can be characterized by the following features:

• Associated architectures, which are also efficient and scalable.

• No ambiguity in naming and addressing.
• Massive number of constrained devices, sleeping nodes, mobile devices, and non-IP devices.
Intermittent and often unstable connectivity
 Form factor is a hardware design aspect that defines and prescribes the size, shape, and other physical
specifications of components, particularly in electronics
 IoT has achieved faster and higher technology acceptance as compared to electricity and telephony.
 Majority of the market share is captured by consumer goods, which is closely followed by insurance
and healthcare industries.
 The combined industrial share of IoT growth (both cross and resource) is 32% of the collective
market, which is again more than that of the consumer market.
 The manufacturing, logistics, and asset management sectors were purported to be the largest receivers
of IoT-linked investments
Evolution of IoT

 The IoT, as we see it today, is a result of a series of technological paradigm shifts over a few decades.
 The technologies that laid the foundation of connected systems by achieving easy integration to daily
lives, popular public acceptance, and massive benefits by using connected solutions can be considered
as the founding solutions for the development of IoT.
1. ATM: ATMs or automated teller machines are cash distribution machines, which are linked to a user’s bank
account.
 ATMs dispense cash upon verification of the identity of a user and their account through a specially coded
card.
 The central concept behind ATMs was the availability of financial transactions even when banks were closed
beyond their regular work hours.
 These ATMs were ubiquitous money dispensers.
 The first ATM became operational and connected online for the first time in 1974.

2. Web: World Wide Web is a global information sharing and communication platform.
 The Web became operational for the first time in 1991. Since then, it has been massively responsible for the
many revolutions in the field of computing and communication.

3. Smart Meters: The earliest smart meter was a power meter, which became operational in early 2000.
 These power meters were capable of communicating remotely with the power grid.
 They enabled remote monitoring of subscribers’ power usage and eased the process of billing and power
allocation from grids.
4. Digital Locks: Digital locks can be considered as one of the earlier attempts at connected home-
automation systems.
 Present-day digital locks are so robust that smartphones can be used to control them.
 Operations such as locking and unlocking doors, changing key codes, including new members in the
access lists, can be easily performed, and that too remotely using smartphones.

5. Connected Healthcare: Healthcare devices connect to hospitals, doctors, and relatives to alert them of
medical emergencies and take preventive measures.
 The devices may be simple wearable appliances, monitoring just the heart rate and pulse of the wearer,
as well as regular medical devices and monitors in hospitals.
 The connected nature of these systems makes the availability of medical records and test results much
faster, cheaper, and convenient for both patients as well as hospital authorities.

6. Connected Vehicles: Connected vehicles may communicate to the Internet or with other vehicles, or
even with sensors and actuators contained within it.
 These vehicles self-diagnose themselves and alert owners about system failures.
7. Smart Cities: This is a city-wide implementation of smart sensing, monitoring, and actuation systems.
The city-wide infrastructure communicating amongst themselves enables unified and synchronized
operations and information dissemination. Some of the facilities which may benefit are parking,
transportation, and others.

8. Smart Dust: These are microscopic computers. Smaller than a grain of sand each, they can be used
in numerous beneficial ways, where regular computers cannot operate. For example, smart dust can be
sprayed to measure chemicals in the soil or even to diagnose problems in the human body.

9. Smart Factories: These factories can monitor plant processes, assembly lines, distribution lines, and
manage factory floors all on their own. The reduction in mishaps due to human errors in judgment or
unoptimized processes is drastically reduced.

10 . UAVs: UAVs or unmanned aerial vehicles have emerged as robust public domain solutions
tasked with applications ranging from agriculture, surveys, surveillance, deliveries, stock maintenance,
asset management, and other tasks.
 The major highlight of this paradigm is its ability to function as a cross-domain technology
enabler. Multiple domains can be supported and operated upon simultaneously over IoT-based
platforms.
 Support for legacy technologies and standalone paradigms, along with modern developments,
makes IoT quite robust and economical for commercial, industrial, as well as consumer
applications.
 IoT is being used in vivid and diverse areas such as smart parking, smartphone detection,
traffic congestion, smart lighting, waste management, smart roads, structural health, urban
noise maps, river floods, water flow, silos stock calculation, water leakages, radiation levels,
explosive and hazardous gases, perimeter access control, snow level monitoring, liquid
presence, forest fire detection, air pollution, smart grid, tank level, photovoltaic installations,
NFC (near-field communications) payments, intelligent shopping applications, landslide and
avalanche prevention, early detection of earthquakes, supply chain control, smart product
management, and others.
Various technological interdependencies of IoT with other domains and networking paradigms such as
Machine2Machine, Cyber Physical System, the Internet of environment (IoE), the Internet of people (IoP),
and Industry 4.0. Each of these networking paradigms is a massive domain on its own, but the universal
nature of IoT implies that these domains act as subsets of IoT.
M2M: The M2M or the machine-to-machine paradigm signifies a system of connected machines and devices,
which can talk amongst themselves without human intervention.
 The communication between the machines can be for updates on machine status (stocks, health, power status,
and others), collaborative task completion, overall knowledge of the systems and the environment, and others.

CPS: The CPS or the cyber physical system paradigm insinuates a closed control loop—from sensing,
processing, and actuation—using a feedback mechanism.
 CPS helps in maintaining the state of an environment through the feedback control loop, which ensures that
until the desired state is attained, the system keeps on actuating and sensing.
 Humans have a simple supervisory role in CPS-based systems; most of the ground-level operations are
automated.

 IoE: The IoE paradigm is mainly concerned with minimizing and even reversing the ill-effects of the
permeation of Internet-based technologies on the environment .
 The major focus areas of this paradigm include smart and sustainable farming, sustainable and energy-efficient
habitats, enhancing the energy efficiency of systems and processes, and others.
 we can safely assume that any aspect of IoT that concerns and affects the environment, falls under the purview
of IoE.
Industry 4.0: Industry 4.0 is commonly referred to as the fourth industrial revolution pertaining to
digitization in the manufacturing industry.
 The previous revolutions chronologically dealt with mechanization, mass production, and the industrial
revolution, respectively.
 This paradigm strongly puts forward the concept of smart factories, where machines talk to one another
without much human involvement based on a framework of CPS and IoT.
 The digitization and connectedness in Industry 4.0 translate to better resource and workforce
management, optimization of production time and resources, and better upkeep and lifetimes of
industrial systems.

IoP: IoP is a new technological movement on the Internet which aims to decentralize online social
interactions, payments, transactions, and other tasks while maintaining confidentiality and privacy of its
user’s data.
 A famous site for IoP states that as the introduction of the Bitcoin has severely limited the power of
banks and governments, the acceptance of IoP will limit the power of corporations, governments, and
their spy agencies.
IoT versus M2M
 M2M or the machine-to-machine paradigm refers to communications and interactions between various
machines and devices.
 These interactions can be enabled through a cloud computing infrastructure, a server, or simply a local
network hub.
 M2M collects data from machinery and sensors, while also enabling device management and device
interaction.
 Telecommunication services providers introduced the term M2M, and technically emphasized on machine
interactions via one or more communication networks (e.g., 3G, 4G, 5G, satellite, public networks).
 M2M is part of the IoT and is considered as one of its sub-domains.
 M2M standards occupy a core place in the IoT landscape.
 in terms of operational and functional scope, IoT is vaster than M2M and comprises a broader range of
interactions such as the interactions between devices/things, things, and people, things and applications,
and people with applications; M2M enables the amalgamation of workflows comprising such interactions
within IoT.
 Internet connectivity is central to the IoT theme but is not necessarily focused on the use of telecom
networks.
IoT versus CPS
 Cyber physical systems (CPS) encompasses sensing, control, actuation, and feedback as a complete
package.
 In other words, a digital twin is attached to a CPS-based system. A digital twin is a virtual system–
model relation, in which the system signifies a physical system or equipment or a piece of machinery,
while the model represents the mathematical model or representation of the physical system’s behavior
or operation.
 Many a time, a digital twin is used parallel to a physical system, especially in CPS as it allows for the
comparison of the physical system’s output, performance, and health.
 Based on feedback from the digital twin, a physical system can be easily given corrective
directions/commands to obtain desirable outputs.
 In contrast, the IoT paradigm does not compulsorily need feedback or a digital twin system. IoT is more
focused on networking than controls.
 Some of the constituent sub-systems in an IoT environment (such as those formed by CPS-based
instruments and networks) may include feedback and controls too. In this light, CPS may be considered
as one of the sub-domains of IoT.
IoT versus WoT
 From a developer’s perspective, the Web of Things (WoT) paradigm enables access and control over
IoT resources and applications.
 These resources and applications are generally built using technologies such as HTML 5.0, JavaScript,
Ajax, PHP, and others.
 REST (representational state transfer) is one of the key enablers of WoT.
 The use of RESTful principles and RESTful APIs (application program interface) enables both
developers and deployers to benefit from the recognition, acceptance, and maturity of existing web
technologies without having to redesign and redeploy solutions from scratch.
 Designing and building the WoT paradigm has various adaptability and security challenges, especially
when trying to build a globally uniform WoT.
 IoT is focused on creating networks comprising objects, things, people, systems, and applications,
which often do not consider the unification aspect and the limitations of the Internet, the need for WoT,
which aims to integrate the various focus areas of IoT into the existing Web is really invaluable.
 Technically, WoT can be thought of as an application layer-based hat added over the network layer. The
scope of IoT applications is much broader; IoT also which includes non-IP-based systems that are not
accessible through the web.
Enabling IoT and the Complex Interdependence of Technologies
 IoT is a paradigm built upon complex interdependencies of technologies (both legacy and modern),
which occur at various planes of this paradigm.
 We can divide the IoT paradigm into four planes:

1. Services,
2. Local connectivity,
3. Global connectivity, and
4. Processing.
 If we consider a bottom-up view, the services offered fall under the control and purview of service
providers.
IoT planes
Service plane  Service plane is composed of two parts:
1) Things or devices 2) Low-power connectivity
 falls under the purview of Service provider
 The services offered in this layer are a combination of things and low power
connectivity
 For example, any IoT application requires the basic setup of sensing, followed by
rudimentary processing (often), and a low-power, low-range network, which is mainly
built upon the IEEE 802.15.4 protocol.
1) Things or devices :
The things may be wearables, computers, smartphones, household appliances, smart
glasses, factory machinery, vending machines, vehicles, UAVs, robots, and other such
contraptions (which may even be just a sensor).
2) Low-power connectivity
The immediate low-power connectivity, which is responsible for connecting the things
in local implementation, may be legacy protocols such as WiFi, Ethernet, or cellular
Ex: Zigbee, RFID, Bluetooth, 6LoWPAN, LoRA, DASH
IoT planes
Local  falls under the purview of IoT management
Connectivity  The local connectivity is responsible for distributing Internet access to multiple
local IoT deployments.
 This distribution may be on the:
basis of the physical placement of the things,
basis of the application domains,
basis of providers of services
 This plane provides services such as address management, device management,
security, sleep scheduling
IoT planes
Global  falls under the purview of IoT management
Connectivity  enables IoT in the real sense by allowing for worldwide implementations and
connectivity between things, users, controllers, and applications
 decides how and when to store data, when to process it, when to forward it, and in
which form to forward it
 Examples: The Web, data-centers, remote servers, Cloud
IoT planes
Processing  falls under the purview of IoT tools
 they wring-out useful and human-readable information from all the raw data that
flows from various IoT devices and deployments
 The various sub-domains of this plane include
 Intelligence
 Conversion (data and format conversion, and data cleaning)
 Learning (making sense of temporal and spatial data patterns)
 Cognition (recognizing patterns and mapping it to already known patterns)
 Algorithms (various control and monitoring algorithms)
 Visualization (rendering numbers and strings in the form of collective trends,
graphs, charts, and projections)
 Analysis (estimating the usefulness of the generated information, making sense
of the information with respect to the application and place of data generation,
and estimating future trends based on past and present patterns of information
obtained)
 Example: big data, machine Learning
 IoT Networking Components
 An IoT implementation is composed of several components, which may vary with their application
domains.
Broad components that come into play during the establishment of any IoT network, into six types:
1) IoT node,
2) IoT router,
3) IoT LAN,
4) IoT WAN,
5) IoT gateway, and
6) IoT proxy.
 Various IoT nodes within an IoT LAN are configured to one another as well as talk to the IoT router
whenever they are in the range of it.
 The devices have locally unique (LU-x) device identifiers.
 These identifiers are unique only within a LAN. There is a high chance that these identifiers may be
repeated in a new LAN.
 Each IoT LAN has its own unique identifier, which is denoted by IoT LAN-x . a router acts as a
connecting link between various LANs by forwarding messages from the LANs to the IoT gateway or
the IoT proxy.
 As the proxy is an application layer device, it is additionally possible to include features such as
firewalls, packet filters, and other security measures besides the regular routing operations.
 Various gateways connect to an IoT wan, which links these devices to the internet. There may be cases
where the gateway or the proxy may directly connect to the internet.
 This network may be wired or wireless; IoT deployments heavily rely on wireless solutions. This is
mainly attributed to the large number of devices that are integrated into the network;
 wireless technology is the only feasible and neat-enough solution to avoid the hassles of laying wires
and dealing with the restricted mobility rising out of wired connections.
IoT network Feature/Functions
components
(i) IoT Node  These are the networking devices within an IoT LAN.
 Each of these devices is typically made up of a sensor, a processor, and a radio, which
communicates with the network infrastructure (either within the LAN or outside it).
 The nodes may be connected to other nodes inside a LAN directly or by means of a
common gateway for that LAN. Connections outside the LAN are through gateways
and proxies
(ii) IoT Router  Routing of packets between various entities in the IoT network; it keeps the traffic
flowing correctly within the network.
 A router can be repurposed as a gateway by enhancing its functionalities.
(iii) IoT LAN  The local area network (LAN) enables local connectivity within the purview of a
single gateway.
 They consist of short-range connectivity technologies.
 IoT LANs may or may not be connected to the Internet. Generally, they are localized
within a building or an organization.
(iv) IoT WAN  The wide area network (WAN) connects various network segments such as LANs.
 They are typically organizationally and geographically wide, with their operational
range lying between a few kilometers to hundreds of kilometers.
 IoT WANs connect to the Internet and enable Internet access to the segments they are
connecting.
IoT network Feature/Functions
components
(v) IoT Gateway  An IoT gateway is a router connecting the IoT LAN to a WAN or the Internet.
 Gateways can implement several LANs and WANs.
 Their primary task is to forward packets between LANs and WANs, and the IP layer
using only layer 3.
(vi) IoT Proxy  Proxies actively lie on the application layer and performs application layer functions
between IoT nodes and other entities
 Typically, application layer proxies are a means of providing security to the network
entities under it ; it helps to extend the addressing range of its network
 ASSIGNMENT-1
1. Differentiate between point-to-point and point-to-multipoint connection types
2. Discuss the pros and cons of the following network topologies:
(a) Star (b) Ring (c) Bus (d) Mesh
3. Explain classification of computer networks based on network reachability
4. Discuss the highlights of the seven layers of the OSI stack
5. What is the Internet protocol suite? How is the Internet protocol suite different from the ISO-OSI
model?
6. Differentiate between
IoT and M2M
IoT and WoT
IoT proxy and an IoT gateway
7. Explain the IoT planes, various enablers of IoT, and the complex interdependencies among them
8. A typical IoT network ecosystem highlighting the various networking components— from IoT nodes
to the Internet