AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES 2

By: Engr. Jerone Kristan Josol

1
 INTRODUCTION
Prospective aircraft engineers are required to demonstrate a sound knowledge
of aircraft construction techniques and details. This module is concerned with
definitions and terms used to describe the more common items incorporated in
general aircraft structures.
Since the development of civil air transports that fly at altitudes requiring
pressurization, the structure has been made strong enough to withstand many
pressurization cycles. These cycles are all recorded by engineers and contribute to
lifting. the aircraft. The number of permitted cycles is limited.
Although the designer takes into account the strain a fuselage is subjected to
during the aircraft’s life, we still have to be aware of, and look for, signs of early
failure.
Engineers Inspection Responsibility
When you are changing a component or testing a part .in situ., it is your un
doubted responsibility to inspect the surrounding structure for signs of corrosion,
fretting, cracking, pitting and a good deal more.
If you think you have found a structural defect then you must enter the defect in
the logbook or appropriate sheet so that it can be rectified in accordance with
the approved drawing.

2
 Aircraft Structures

Chapter 1

AIRFRAME CONSTRUCTION

3
DESIGN FOR END LOADS
Aircraft structural members are designed to carry a load or to resist
stress. A single member of the structure may be subjected to a
combination of stresses. In most cases the structural members
are designed to carry end loads rather than side loads; that is,
to be subjected to tension or compression rather than bending.

Major Structural Stresses

The five stresses acting on an aircraft are:
_ compression,
_ tension,
_ shear,
_ bending,
_ twisting (torsion).

4
STRUCTURAL DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES FAIL-SAFE

To most aircraft engineers the terms ,fail-safe., ,damage The design of a safe aircraft structure is extremely complex,
tolerance. and ,fatigue index. are part of the language that is and evolves over a period of time, supported mainly by full-
used in reference books or technical manuals, but what do scale airframe testing, fatigue analysis and service
they mean? They are terms used by design engineers and experience. This method is commonly known as the fail-safe
aircraft manufacturers and are not normally used in everyday method. The fail-safe method relies upon a duplication of
aircraft maintenance jargon. certain structural members to ensure that if one member
The basic structural design philosophy of all aircraft failed, the other would assume the load of the failed member.
manufacturers is to deliver to the customer, the highest quality In the illustration below, the spar is made in two sections, the
aircraft that is feasible, using the best design and top section consists of a cap, riveted to the upper web plate.
manufacturing techniques. The aircraft must be capable of The lower section is a single extrusion consisting of a lower
providing safe transportation of passengers for long periods of cap and web plate. These two pieces are joined together to
time, and the structure must sustain all the environmental form the main spar. If either section of this type of spar should
conditions that it will experience during its life. break, the other will carry the load, such a construction follows
the fail-safe concept.
From a maintenance point of view this includes:
_ fail-safe,
_ damage tolerance,
_ fatigue indexing.

5
DAMAGE TOLERANCE

The fail-safe method is rather old and outdated,

the main drawback in the fail safe concept was
the additional weight required by the addition of
extra structural members to protect the integrity
of the structure. The fail-safe concept has now
been reflected in new design ideas and is
incorporated in the concept of damage tolerance
which has eliminated the extra structural
members by distributing the loading of a
particular structure over a larger area.
The damage tolerance design concept requires
an evaluation of the structure to ensure that
should serious damage, that is cracking or partial
failure, occur within the operational life of the
aircraft, the remaining structure can withstand
reasonable loads without failure until the damage
is detected.
In simple terms, the structure is designed so that
damage can be detected during the normal
inspection cycles, before a failure occurs. A
typical example of this design concept is shown
below.
FATIGUE

If an increasing load is applied to a piece of material, a

value of the load will eventually be reached at which the
material fractures. This is the ultimate static load the
material can take. In most cases this situation will not apply
to the structure of the aircraft. If we assume that only a
fraction of the ultimate static load is applied to the aircraft,
then the structure may bend or stretch but will not break.
Once the load has been removed, the structure reverts
back to its normal shape. The loading cycle may be
repeated many times and each time the structure reverts
back to its original shape. On visual inspection there would
seem to be no degrading of the structure, but if this cycle
loading were to continue a sufficient number of times, the
material will break.
This phenomenon of fracturing after a series of cyclic loads,
maybe much less than the ultimate load, is known as
fatigue.

6
DEFINITIONS OF STRUCTURAL MEMBERS Manufacturers Joint (UK) or Production Break (USA)
Certain terms are commonly used in connection with aircraft Many aircraft are built in sections which are then assembled to
construction. Listed here are the main definitions and terms for one another. The joints are given different names according to
familiarization: the country of origin (see heading above).
Station Numbers
Longeron Numbers allocated to certain components, e.g. frames and
Main longitudinal member of a fuselage or nacelle. ribs, to indicate their positions within the structure. The
Tie Rod (Tension Rod) numbers may represent in inches the distance from a datum
point which could be the fuselage, nose or the wing root.
Member taking a tensile load.
Safe Life
Strut
The period during which it is considered that failure of a
Member taking a compression load. component is extremely unlikely. When deciding its duration
Stressed Skin (Semi-monocoque) the effects of wear, fatigue and corrosion must be considered.
Structure where loads are shared between skin and framework. If tests show that fatigue will cause failure in 12,000 flying
Frame hours, then one sixth of this might be quoted as the safe life. If
Lateral fuselage or nacelle member giving cross-sectional shape wear or corrosion is likely to cause failure before 12,000 hours
which is often circular. May be reinforced where attachments, then it will be the deciding factor. Life may be expressed in
e.g. mainplanes, are made. flying hours, elapsed time, number of flights or number of
applications of load.
Rib
Crack Stopper
A fore-and-aft structural member of an aerofoil which has the
primary purpose of maintaining the correct contour of the A reinforcing member normally placed at right angles to the
covering but is usually also a stress bearing component of the path of an anticipated crack which will reduce the rate of
main structure. further propagation.
Spar Aerodynamic Loading
The main span wise member of an aerofoil. Frequently consists The loads imposed on an aircraft in flight.
of an upper and lower boom separated by a web. Static Loading
Stringer The loads imposed on an aircraft when stationary.
Stiffener which assists sheet materials to carry loads along their
length. With integral construction they are machined or etched
out of the skin panel.
Bulkhead
A partition within the structure. Usually lateral but can be
longitudinal. If it forms the boundary of pressurized structure it is
called a pressure bulkhead.

7
FUSELAGE STRUCTURE

The fuselage is the main structure or body of the aircraft. It

provides space for cargo, controls, accessories,
passengers, and other equipment. In single-engine aircraft,
it also houses the powerplant. In multi-engine aircraft the
engines may either be in the fuselage, attached to the
fuselage, or suspended from the wing structure.
General types of fuselage construction:
- truss type,
- monocoque type
- semi monocoque type

Truss Type
A truss is a rigid framework made up of members such as
beams, struts, and bars to resist deformation by applied
loads. The truss-framed fuselage is generally covered with
fabric.
On some aircraft, principally the light, single-engine models,
truss fuselage frames are constructed of aluminum alloy
and may be riveted or bolted into one piece, with cross-
bracing achieved by using solid rods or tubes.
The truss type fuselage frame is usually constructed of
steel tubing welded together in such a manner that all
members of the truss can carry both tension and
compression loads.
The illustration shows tubular construction used for light
aircraft engine mountings.

8
Monocoque Construction Semi Monocoque Construction
This is further classified into the true monocoque construction In addition to formers, frame assemblies, and bulkheads, the
and the more common semi-monocoque construction. semi-monocoque construction has the skin reinforced by
The true monocoque construction uses formers, frame longitudinal members. The reinforced shell has the skin
assemblies, and bulkheads to give shape to the fuselage, but reinforced by a complete framework of structural members.
the skin carries the primary stresses. Different portions of the same fuselage may belong to either of
Since no bracing members are present, the skin must be the two classes, but most aircraft are considered to be of semi-
strong enough to keep the fuselage rigid. Thus, the biggest monocoque type construction.
problem involved in monocoque construction is maintaining The semi-monocoque fuselage is constructed primarily of the
enough strength while keeping the weight within allowable alloys of aluminum, although steel and titanium are found in
limits. areas of high temperatures.
To overcome the strength/weight problem of monocoque
construction, a modification called semi-monocoque Longerons
construction was developed. Primary bending loads are taken by the longerons, which
usually extend across several points of support. The longerons
Bulkheads, Frames and Formers are supplemented by other longitudinal members, called
The vertical structural members are referred to as bulkheads, stringers.
frames and formers. The heaviest of these vertical members Stringers
are located at intervals to carry concentrated loads and at The stringers are smaller and lighter than longerons and serve
points where fittings are used to attach other units, such as the as fill-ins. They have some rigidity, but are chiefly used for
wings, powerplants, and stabilizers. giving shape and for attachment of the skin.
The strong, heavy longerons hold the bulkheads and formers,
and these, in turn, hold the stringers. All of these joined together
form a rigid fuselage framework.
Function of Stringers and Longerons
There is often little difference between some rings, frames, and
formers. One manufacturer may call a brace a former, whereas
another may call the same type of brace a ring or frame.
Manufacturers. instructions and specifications for a specific
aircraft are the best guides.
Stringers and longerons prevent tension and compression from
bending the fuselage. Stringers are usually of a one-piece
aluminum alloy construction, and are manufactured in a variety
of shapes by casting, extrusion, or forming.
Stressed Skin
The metal skin or covering is riveted to the longerons,
bulkheads, and other structural members and carries part of the
load. The fuselage skin thickness will vary with the load carried
and the stresses sustained at a particular location

9
10
SKIN MANUFACTURE
Milled Structure
This is a process of manufacturing an integrally constructed
In the continuing desire to provide lighter structures but still skin, either for the fuselage or the wings using a milling
retain the strength of the materials, various methods have process. A typical milled structure is shown below.
been devised. Three methods now adopted to achieve this aim
are: This milling process is frequently used in the manufacture of
wings, particularly for the sections between the spars. The top
- machined skins, and bottom stressed skins, complete with stringers, are milled
- chemically etched skins, out as a single piece from a thick aluminum alloy sheet. The
- milled skins. skins are then attached to the wings by bolts and rivets.
This type of structure involves fewer structural parts, and
Machined Skins because of the reduction in the number of joints, ensures that
With the normal skin method of construction, the holes drilled there are fewer rivets and bolts to interrupt the smoothness of
for attaching the rivets weaken the stressed skin, so the the airflow over the wing. Such a method of manufacture
aircraft designer will require a thicker skin than the design reduces the possibility of internal structural corrosion taking
loads dictate to preserve the strength in the rivet area. place.
This requirement is fairly unimportant where the skin is thin,
but for thick skins, of the type used on large multi-engine
aircraft there is a major weight penalty to be paid.
The required strength can be maintained and a reduction of
weight achieved by using a machined skin. Consider the figure
on the next page, the riveted area retains the skin thickness,
but the non-riveted areas have been machined to reduce
weight.
An example of chemical skin etching is shown below. Here we
can see a typical skin section riveted to the fuselage structure.
The metal between the doubler plates has been chemically
etched to produce a thin portion of skin, this leads to a major
weight saving on large transport aircraft. The parts that are
riveted to the structure have not been etched and have the
original skin thickness very similar to the arrangement in the
figure below.

11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
 Aircraft Structures

Chapter 2

AIRCRAFT MATERIALS
(Composite and Metallic)

30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
 Aircraft Structures

Chapter 3

AIRCRAFT HARDWARE
(Fasteners)

59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
 Aircraft Structures

Chapter 4

SHEET METAL WORKS

87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119