DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
Ramon Joseph Verdon
INTRODUCTION TO SETS
WHAT IS A SET?
A set is a fundamental concept that represents an unordered collection of
distinct objects, considered as an object in its own right. Sets are used to group
related items together and to define relationships between objects.
The objects in a set are called elements or members.
EXAMPLES OF COMMON SETS
1. Natural numbers
2. Whole numbers
3. Integer
4. Rational numbers
5. Real numbers
6. Complex numbers
NATURAL NUMBERS WHOLE NUMBERS
ℕ represents the set of all positive W represents the set of all non-
integers starting from 1. negative integers, including 0
ℕ = {1, 2, 3, …} W = {0, 1, 2, 3, …}
INTEGERS RATIONAL NUMBERS
ℤ represents the set of all integers, ℚ represents the set of all rational
including positive, negative, and zero numbers, which are numbers that can
ℤ = {…, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …} be expressed as a fraction a/bwhere
a and b are integers and b≠0
ℚ = {a/b ∣ a,b∈ℤ, b ≠ 0}.
REAL NUMBERS COMPLEX NUMBERS
ℝ represents the set of all real ℂ represents the set of all complex
numbers, including both rational and numbers, which include real and
irrational numbers. imaginary parts. A complex number is
of the form a + bi, where a and b are
real numbers and i is the imaginary
ℝ = {x | x is a real number} unit with the i² = -1.
ℂ = { a + bi ∣ a,b∈ℝ , i² = -1}.
EXAMPLES OF SPECIAL SETS
1. Universal Sets
2. Empty Sets
UNIVERSAL SETS EMPTY SETS
The universal set, often denoted by The empty set, denoted by ∅ or {}, is
, is the set that contains all the the set that contains no elements. It is
objects or elements under unique in that there is only one empty
consideration in a particular context set, and it is a subset of every set.
or discussion. In general, it includes In mathematical notation, we write ∅
every element that could possibly be ⊆ A for any set A, indicating that the
included in any set being discussed.
empty set is a subset of any set.
The concept of the empty set is
For example, if we are dealing with important because it serves as the
sets of integers, the universal set identity element for the union of sets
might be the set of all integers. and the null element for the
intersection of sets.
SET RELATIONSHIPS
SET EQUALITY
Two sets A and B are equal if and only if every element of A is an element of B,
and every element of B is an element of A.
This is written as A = B.
Formally, A = B: ∀x (x∈A ⟺ x∈B)
SET RELATIONSHIPS
Set relationships describe how different 1. Subset
sets interact with each other and how 2. Proper Subset
their elements compare.
3. Superset
4. Proper Superset
Here are some fundamental set
relationships: 5. Union
6. Intersection
7. Difference
8. Complement
SUBSET PROPER SUBSET
Subset is denoted by ⊆. Proper subset is denoted by ⊂.
Set A is a subset of Set B (written A ⊆ Set A is a proper subset of Set B
B) if every element of A is also an (written A ⊂ B) if A ⊆ B and A ≠ B
element of B
Formally, A ⊆ B means ∀x( x∈A → Example: If A = {1, 2} and B = {1, 2,
x∈B)
3}, then A ⊂ B.
Example: If A = {1, 2} and B = {1, 2,
3, 4}, then A ⊆ B.
SUPERSET PROPER SUPERSET
Superset is denoted by ⊇. Proper superset is denoted by ⊃.
Set B is a superset of Set A (written B A set B is a proper superset of set A
⊇ A) if every element of A is also an (written B ⊃ A) if B ⊇ A and B ≠ A
element of B.
Example: If A = {1, 2} and B = {1, 2,
This is the same as saying A ⊆ B, but 3}, then B ⊃ A.
from the perspective of B containing
A.
Example: If A = {1, 2} and B = {1, 2,
3, 4}, then B ⊇ A
UNION INTERSECTION
Union is denoted by ∪. Intersection is denoted by ∩.
The union of sets A and B (written A ∪ The intersection of set A and set B
B) is the set of elements that are in A (written A ∩ B) is the set of elements
or B or both. that are in both A and B.
Formally, A ∪ B = {x ∣ x∈A or x∈B}. Formally, A ∩ B = {x ∣ x∈A and x∈B}.
Example: If A = {1, 2} and B = {2, Example: If A = {1, 2} and B = {2,
3}, then A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3} 3}, then A ∩ B = {2}.
DIFFERENCE COMPLEMENT
The difference of sets A and set B Complement is denoted by ′.
(written A − B or A ∖ B) is the set of The complement of a set A (written A′
elements that are in A but not in B. or ) is the set of elements that are in
the universal set but not in A.
Formally, A − B = {x ∣ x∈A and
x∉B}. Formally, A′ = {x ∣ x∈ and x∉A}.
Example: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {2, Example: If the universal set,
3}, then A − B = {1}.
= {1, 2, 3, 4} and A = {1, 2},
then A′ = {3, 4}.
CARDINALITY OF SETS
Cardinality of a set refers to the number of elements in the set. It is a measure
of the "size" of the set.
1. Finite Set: If a set has a finite number of elements, its cardinality is the
count of those elements.
Example: If A = {1, 2, 3}, then the cardinality of A, denoted ∣A∣, is 3.
2. Infinite Set: If a set has an infinite number of elements, its cardinality can
be described in terms of types of infinity (e.g., countable or uncountable
infinity).
Example: The set of natural numbers has a cardinality denoted as ℵ0
(aleph-null), representing countable infinity.
POWER SETS
The power set of a set A, denoted P(A) or 2ᴬ, is the set of all possible subsets of
A, including the empty set and A itself.
Cardinality: If A has n elements, then the power set P(A) has 2ⁿ elements.
Example: If A = {1, 2}, then P(A) = {∅, {1}, {2}, {1, 2}}.
ORDERED PAIRS
An ordered pair, also called a tuple, is an ordered list of elements. Ordered
pairs are used to describe sequences, and order matters.
Notation: An n-tuple is written as (a₁, a₂,…,aₙ) where each aᵢ is an element of
some set.
2-tuple (pair): (a, b)
3-tuple (triple): (a, b ,c)
Order Matters: (a, b) ≠ (b, a) unless a=b.
Elements Can Repeat: (a, a) is a valid tuple.
CARTESIAN PRODUCTS
The Cartesian product of two sets A and B, denoted A × B, is the set of all
ordered pairs (a, b) where the first element ‘a’ is from set A and the second
element ‘b’ is from set B.
Definition: A × B = { (a, b) ∣ a∈A and b∈B}
Example: If A = {1, 2} and B = {x, y} ,then A × B ={(1, x), (1, y), (2, x), (2,
y)}.
ACTIVITY
Given: Find: 11. P(C)
= {0,1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 1. A∪B 12. P(D)
9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15} 2. B∪C 13. |C|
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 3. A∩B 14. |A|
10} 4. B∩C 15. |D|
B = {2, 4, 6, 8} 5. A−B 16. |B|
C = {3, 5, 7, 9} 6. A−C 17. C × B
7. A′ 18. A × C
= {alphabet} 8. B′ 19. B × D
D = {a, b, c, d} 9. C′ 20. D × C
10. P(B)
