Active and Passive supports

Support: Application of a reactive force at the face of excavation.

Reinforcement: An improvement of overall rock mass properties from within the rock mass and will
therefore include all techniques and devices that act within the rock mass.
Purpose of support:
To activate, conserve and improve the inherent strength (tensile and shear) of strata and maintain their
load bearing capacity.
Passive Support
Not installed with an applied loading but develops its load as the rock mass deform.
Active support
Impose a predetermined load (application of pre-tension load) to the rock surface at the time of
installation.
Intended to react to rock mass movement, develop a retraining force and transfer that force back to the
rock mass
Advantages of pre-tensioning
• Ensure bolt plates is set tight to the roof
• Open discontinuities are closed
• Minimise the further deformation in immediate roof strata.
• Improve the self-bearing capacity of immediate roof strata just after installation
 Active support
Rock bolt design: Suspension effect and Friction effect

Suspension effect: Bolts pre-tensioned to less than the design value may allow the roof to sag locally. This
causes a disturbance in the intact structure of the roof which may act as a zone where roof failure can
initiate.

Friction effect: It relies on the generation of a stress normal to bedding planes in the roof. For this
mechanism to be most effective, the distribution of normal stress on these planes must be as even as possible.

After the installation of pre-tensioned rock bolts, the roof often moves, and as a consequence, the load in the
rock bolts increases by an amount dependent upon their stiffness and the amount of movement.

Roof movement after bolt installation depends on the

 local conditions of stress,
 geological structure,
 rock mass strength,
 opening geometry and
 the time at which bolts are installed with respect to face position.
Active support
The tension developed in a rock bolt when a torque is applied to the nut
depends on:
i. anchorage strength
ii. applied torque
iii.thread friction
iv. collar friction
v. diameter of bolt and geometry of thread

The equation for pre-tension expressed as a function of the last four parameters above
is well known and widely used.
 TORQUE-TENSION EQUATION
If a rock bolt is anchored at one end and a torque T applied to a nut bearing on a washer
(collar) at the other end, the tensile force F developed in the bolt is estimated by following
equation (Shigley, 1963):
𝑻
𝑭 = (𝟏 )
𝑲𝒅
where d is the bolt diameter K
(2)

= mean bolt diameter (average of major and minor diameters at the thread)

𝜽=𝒕𝒂𝒏
−𝟏
( 𝒍
𝝅 𝒅𝒎 )
= lead or pitch of thread
𝛂= 𝐩𝐫𝐨𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝐭𝐡𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐝𝐟𝐥𝐚𝐧𝐤 𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐞
= Coefficient of thread friction (nut/thread)
= Coefficient of collar friction (nut/washer)
 THREAD FRICTION
Resistance to Applied Torque
• Friction between the thread surfaces in the nut and bolt provides an opposing moment to the applied torque which
generates a shear (torsional) stress in the bolt.
• As the total resistance to the applied torque comes from friction at both the thread and collar, it is possible to define
the effect of thread friction as a percentage of the total resistance.
• It is observed that if the coefficients of friction at the thread and collar are equal, then each provides approximately
equal resistance to the torque.
• Therefore an attempt to further reduce the torque resistance would be most effective if it was concentrated on
methods of reducing thread friction
Stress in the Bolt
The maximum shear stress a rock bolt developed during pre-tensioning is at the thread minor diameter and is given by:

( ) {( )}
′
𝟏𝟔 𝑲 𝒅𝑭 𝒅𝒎 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽 + 𝝁𝒕 𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝜶
𝝉= 𝟑 𝑲 ′=
𝝅 ( 𝒅𝒊 ) 𝟐𝒅 𝟏 − 𝝁𝒕 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽 𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝜶

is the minor diameter of the thread. The shear stress is a direct result of friction on the thread. During
tensioning of the bolt, this shear stress combines with the axial stress to give the total stress. Axial stress is
given by
= (4)
where is the core area (section at the minor diameter)
 Based on the octahedral shear stress theory of failure, the maximum equivalent
normal stress is given by:
(5)

and must not exceed the yield stress of the bolt material. An assumption in the formulation of equations (4) and (5)
is that the bolt does not bend during installation and pre-tensioning.

Value of coefficient of thread friction (nut/thread)

1. Bolts coated with lubricant/corrosion inhibitor, =0.10.

2. Bolts as received with light lubrication and no rust, =0.16.
3. Bolts as received with light surface rust, =0.20.
4. Bolts with a thick rust layer, =0.30.
Coefficient of collar friction, (nut/washer)

The coefficient of collar friction depends upon the following:

 Contact surface conditions between the nut and washer

• Surface conditions between a steel nut and washer can be modified by lubrication. This may take the
form of readily available grease formulations or bonded lubricants.
• Another method to achieve low values of is to include a deformable washer between the steel nut and
washer. Torque-tension tests have been performed by CSIRO on 24 mm diam. Rock bolts with a
deformable washer (Safety Boost Assembly, 1979) placed between the nut and washer. Results of these
tests show that bolt pre-tension is increased 60% when the deformable washer is used.
 Contact angle between the nut and washer
• Karabin and Sawyer (1976) report that the contact angle between the nut and washer has a substantial
effect on bolt pre-tension.
• increasing the contact angle caused a reduction in pre-tension for a given applied torque.
• pre-tension reduction of approximately 530 N per degree angle between the nut and washer
FRICTION COEFFICIENTS FOR VARIOUS THREAD AND COLLAR CONDITIONS ON ROCK BOLTS
Short-Encapsulation Pull-out Test (SEPT)
&
Anchorage Testing of Roof Bolt
 Short Encapsulation Pull Tests (SEPT)
Introduction
The short encapsulation pull test is used to measure the performance
of a rock bolt/resin/rock system

The test is performed underground and is the ultimate proof test of a

bolt/resin/rock system

The material to be used in preparation of resin grouts should be such

that it must develops an anchorage strength as per guidelines of
DGMS. For quick setting cement grouting, anchorage strength should
be 3 tons after 30 minutes and 5 tons after two hours of setting time.
Efficacy of the adopted support system needs to checked regularly
through Short Encapsulation Pull-out Test (SEPT) for every new
batch of resin capsules and steel bolts intended to be used in line with
guidelines of the Coal Mines Regulations 2017 and DGMS Circulars
 SEPT Legislation

As part of any Geotechnical Assessment and Site Investigation

1. Short Encapsulation Pull Tests (SEPT) must be undertaken to determine the
bond strength of the proposed rock bolting reinforcement system in-situ
2. Needs to be carried out at three horizons within the bolted height. i.e. 0.6m, 1.2m
and 1.8m horizons for a 1.8m bolt
3. The bond strength needs to have a minimum value of 130kN, for a bond length of
0.3m.
4. These tests must be repeated if there are any major change in the roof lithology
within the bolted height, or changes in materials used and/or Methods of
installation
5. Routine SEPT should also be undertaken to confirm that the rock/bolt/resin
System is continuing to perform as designed
 Pull out test of the rock/cable bolts: WHY?

To ensure that the reinforcement system being installed is and

continues to be effective

Potential changes include :-

• change in lithology
• change in quality of consumables
• change in quality of installation
• after receiving of every consignment of the consumable item
SEPT-Principles and Objectives
The SEPT is used to measure the performance of the Rock
bolt/resin/rock system

To do this the objective of the test is to defeat the resin bond and to
characterise the bond failure in terms of :

BOND STRENGTH

and

SYSTEM STIFFNESS

Test it to destruction so that we know its limits

SEPT-Principles and Objectives

Install bolt with short resin encapsulation

(Standard Length)

Apply increasing axial load to bolt

(Standard Loading Rate)

Measure load increase and

bolt end displacement
SEPT-Principles and Objectives

BOND STRENGTH

By plotting displacement against

applied load we can determine

BOND STRENGTH
APPLIED LOAD (kN)

and

SYSTEM STIFFNESS
SS
FN E
STIF

BOND DISPLACEMENT (mm)

SEPT-Principles and Objectives

So why do we use

“SHORT ENCAPSULATION”

pull testing ?
SEPT-Principles and Objectives
If we do pull test a fully encapsulated bolt, installed using
a modern high strength/high stiffness polyester resin, we
would

 not fail the resin bond, and

 either break or yield the bolt

or
 fail the bolt threads

Therefore, would not be testing the resin bond but merely

testing the strength of the bolt steel which we already
know
SEPT-Principles and Objectives

Short Resin Therefore,

Column
We need to test bolts installed in a short column of resin
 Internationally accepted Method
No Resin
 Standard Procedure

Bond length always the same

 well controlled in order for the tests to be compared with
each other and against the established standard.
SEPT: Equipment with Pull Bar

TEST HORIZON 300mm EMBEDDED LENGTH

BOLT

FACE PLATE

HYDRAULIC RAM

NUT
PULL BAR

DIAL GAUGE
HYDRAULIC PUMP WITH
FORCE INDICATOR
MONOPOD
SEPT: Equipment with Pull Bar

TEST HORIZON 300mm EMBEDDED LENGTH

BOLT

SHIMS
BEARING PLATE
HYDRAULIC RAM

NUT

DIAL GAUGE
HYDRAULIC PUMP WITH
FORCE INDICATOR
MONOPOD
SEPT: Equipment with Pull Bar
HYDRAULIC JACK
• 30 tonne capacity, hollow cylinder
• centre hole diameter > bolt (35mm ID)
• single acting, spring return
• 50mm stroke
• effective area of cylinder 47cm^2
• closed height 165mm
• weight 10 kg

PUMP
• hand pump
• 700 bar working pressure
• oil capacity 1 litre
• length (typically) 560mm
• weight 5.6 kg
HOSE
• 3m reinforced hydraulic hose quick release couplers
SEPT: Equipment with Pull Bar

In line pressure gauge calibrated to pump / jack / hose system

measuring either psi, tonnes or kN
SEPT: Equipment with Pull Bar

Steel shims

Bearing Plate

Draw Bar (pull bar) & Nut

 Borehole Micrometer

Used to measure the borehole diameter

Borehole Micrometer
Calibrated against ring gauge
Vernier Calipers
 SEPT: Bolt Preparation
 Cut all bolts square and to exact length, then measure bolt length

 Record exact length on booking sheet

 Tape bolt 300mm from bolt end to ensure required bond length, taping at least
300mm of the bolt

 Ensure surface condition of bolt is free from rust, grease, paint or dirt or any
other surface contamination

300mm
SEPT: Bolt Preparation
SEPT: Bolt and Resin Capsule Diameter

 Measure and record the average diameter of bolt

core and across the ribs.
 Also, check the resin capsule diameter
 SEPT: Drilling Holes
1. Select site, having flat roof, near face
Dress roof if necessary
Do not install through mesh or straps
Test bolts at least 300mm apart
2. Mark drill steel 250mm shorter than the cut bolt
3. Use bolt machine, drill rods, drill bits and flushing system normally used (must be drilled at same
spin speed & penetration rate)
4. Record bit type
5. Record bit dimension across tip for each test
6. Drill hole vertical & to required depth
7. Flush for 10 seconds at required depth
SEPT: Average hole diameter

3
Resin Bond Length
4

Record average hole diameter of top 300mm

 Use calibrated borehole micrometer
 Average at least 4 measurements
SEPT: Determine capsule length

Determine length of capsule required using formula :-

Capsule length = (Hole D² - Bolt D²) x bond length +15mm

Capsule D²

 The purpose of calculating capsule length is to restrict the excess resin beyond
300mm

 Important not to have too short a resin length

 Also important not to encapsulate too much of taped section of bolt

 SEPT: Resin preparation

 Use appropriate resin type, i.e. that used in section

 Use best condition resin available

 Prepare capsule using tie wraps to give correct amount of resin for 300mm
encapsulation

 Record length and average diameter of capsule

- Record these measurements on each capsule
 SEPT: Resin capsule resizing

Required
length

1. Twist capsule at required length

Tie wrap

2. Tie the capsule at the twist using a tie wrap. Make

sure it is tied to prevent loss of resin or bursting
open in the hole.

3. Cut capsule using knife trimming off any

surplus plastic.
SAFETY

1. Eye protection should be worn at all times. Twisting these capsules puts the contents under pressure
and pills could burst. Also, when cutting the centre section resin may burst out under pressure.
2. Wear gloves. Resin is a skin irritant.
3. If resin comes into contact with skin, wash off immediately.
SEPT: Resin capsule resizing
SEPT: Installing bolt

1. Insert prepared capsule to back of hole

2. Carefully, steadily insert bolt by hand
3. Locate bolt into spinner adaptor
4. Apply spin and thrust only after resin at back of hole
5. Mix resin for 5 seconds
6. Hold for 30 seconds before lowering machine
 SEPT: Pulling
Leave bolts for at least 1 hour and not more than 24 hours
Assemble pull test jack & bearing plates onto bolt and secure nut
Shim to ensure axial load on bolt, then tighten to roof
- ensure double nuts used if not using pull bar
- do not apply > 20kN at this stage
Locate dial gauge in pull bar indentation
Foot of monopod to be located on firm surface
Ensure axis of bolt, dial gauge, ram, monopod in line
- to ensure load applied axially to bolt
Record initial reading on dial gauge
Apply slow steady continuous pressure using hand pump
Record bolt displacement from dial gauge every 10kN
Stop at: i) max load = 200kN ( for 22mm dia bolts)
or: ii) stop when 1 sweep of dial gauge occurs during 10kN applied load
SEPT: Procedure for pull testing

Rockbolt

Rockbolt

Rockbolt

Plate

Jack

Nut Shims Baggin

Bolt extension

1. Install rockbolt with extra bolt

extended out of roof
2. Assembly plate & jack (and
Gauge
spacer where necessary). Screw Pump
nut on leaving assembly clear of 3. Shim plate where roof uneven
roof to achieve an even contact of
jack to roof perpendicular to 5. Attach baggin, gauge, and
rockbolt. pump as shown

4. Tighten jack assembly to

roofhand tight only
SEPT: Data sheet
PULL TEST RESULTS COLLIERY WHITE SECTION 35 - Split 218 Road L1-L2 DATE 14/3/02

MM Bit type BOART LONGYEAR SEMI - SPADE Bit O mm 25mm

Roof Horizon (measured from top of seam) -0. 5 m Test Details : 16mm Bolts + Standard Fasloc Resin - Wet Drilled - Modified Fletcher Bolter

Bolt Length Bolt rib Bolt core Hole Resin Resin Spare
900 O O O capsule O length thread
mm (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)

kN 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 20.7 19.9 26.5 23 155 40

0 0 2
10 8 3
20 16 4
30 30 5
40 46 6
50 57 7
60 72 8
70 84 9
80 94 10
90 110 11
100 126 12
110 142 Installation time 11:20 Pull out time13:50
120 163 Remarks:

130 185
140 210

150 250 Installation Times:-

Bolt 1 = 11:20 Bolt 1 = 20sec spin
160 360
All holes drilled with same drill bit
170 Problems with drilling - drill steel blocking
180 due to water leaks at chuck adaptor giving
loss of water pressure.
190
200
210
220 ROCK MECHANICS TECHNOLOGY Ltd
SEPT: Data Analysis

BOND STRENGTH
By plotting

Applied load
Against
APPLIED LOAD (kN)

Bond displacement
we can determine
E SS
FFN

BOND STRENGTH
ST I

And

SYSTEM STIFFNESS
BOND DISPLACEMENT (mm)
SEPT: Analysis-Bond displacement

Bond Displacement

The difference between Bond Displacement

and Measured Displacement is the stretch of
the bolt steel under load
Bolt
Free
Length
Extension

Measured Displacement

Applied Load
SEPT: Analysis-Bond displacement
Bond displacement (mm) = Measured displacement - Stretch in free length steel

We need to calculate the stretch in the steel for the bolt free length

Young’s Modulus E = Stress

Strain

and, Stress = Force F

Area A

and, Strain = Extension ΔL

Original length L

Young’s Modulus E = Force F / Area A

Extension ΔL / Bolt free length L

Young’s Modulus E = Force F x Length L

Area A x Extension ΔL

Extension (Stretch) ΔL = Force F (kN) x Length L (mm)

Area A (mm²) x Modulus E (N/mm²)
SEPT: Analysis-Bond displacement (Example)

PULL TEST RESULTS COLLIERY WHITE SECTION 35 - Split 218 Road L1-L2 DATE 14/3/02

MM Bit type BOART LONGYEAR SEMI - SPADE Bit O mm 25mm

Roof Horizon (measured from top of seam) -0. 5 m Test Details : 16mm Bolts + Standard Fasloc Resin - Wet Drilled - Modified Fletcher Bolter
Bolt
rib rib Bolt Bolt
core core Hole Resin Spare Resin Spare
Bolt Length Bolt Hole Resin Resin
900 OO O O O O
capsule O capsule
length OThread length thread
mm (mm)
(mm) (mm)(mm) (mm) (mm)
(mm) (mm)
(mm) ( mm) (mm) (mm)

kN 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 20.7 19.9 26.5 23 155 40

0 0 2
10 8 3
20 16 4
30 30 5
40 46 6
50 57 7
60 72 8
70 84 9
80 94 10
90 110 11
100 126 100kN load gives 1.26mm displacement 12
110 142 Installation time 11:20 Pull out time13:50
120 163 Remarks:

130 185
140 210

150 250 Installation Times:-

Bolt 1 = 11:20 Bolt 1 = 20sec spin
160 360
All holes drilled with same drill bit
170 Problems with drilling - drill steel blocking
180 due to water leaks at chuck adaptor giving
loss of water pressure.
190
200
210
220 ROCK MECHANICS TECHNOLOGY Ltd
SEPT: Analysis-Bond displacement

Example:
100 kN
Imposed load (force) = 100kN (10 tonne)
APPLIED LOAD (kN)

Bolt diameter = 20mm

Bolt free length = 610mm
Modulus of AT steel = 206000 N/mm²
Measured displacement = 1.26mm

.x…mm
BOND DISPLACEMENT (mm)

Extension (Stretch) ΔL = Force F (kN) x Length L (mm)

Area A (mm²) x Modulus E (N/mm²)

Stretch ΔL = 100,000 (N) x 610 (mm) = 0.94mm

206000 (N/mm²) x 314 (mm²)
SEPT: Analysis-Bond displacement
Therefore:

If the measured displacement is 1.26mm,

and

Bond displacement (mm) = Measured displacement - Stretch in free length steel

then,

the Bond Displacement = 1.26 – 0.94 = 0.32mm

 ANCHORAGE OF FULLY GROUTED BOLTS
A fully grouted bolt anchors itself by frictional interlock between the resin and the rock.

Grip Factor/Bond factor/Anchorage factor

The effectiveness of the interlock is measured by the “Grip Factor,” which is defined as the
bolt’s resistance to pullout per inch of bolt length.

Grip factors for fully grouted resin bolts.

Grip Factor/Bond factor/Anchorage factor

The Grip Factor must be determined by

loading the upper portion of the grouted bolt.
This is accomplished with short encapsulation
pull tests (SEPT), in which only the top 12 in
(30 cm) of the bolt is grouted. The Grip
Factor (tons per inch) is calculated as:

Grip Factor = Maximum SEPT Load

(tons)/12 in

SEPT: (A) Normal hole; (B) Reamed hole

 Effect of the Grip Factor on bolt performance
Within the anchorage zone (the upper
portion of the bolt), the bolt’s available
resistance to loading from rock movement
may be considerably less than its nominal
yield strength.
The length of the anchor (LAnch, in in) is the
bolt’s yield load (Y, in tons) divided by the
Grip Factor (GF):

LAnch = Y / GF
Obviously, a bolt with a larger Grip Factor will
have more available resistance over a longer length,
as shown in figure B.
In fact, the “Full Resistance Length” (L FR) of a
fully grouted bolt, which is the zone in which the
force available to resist rock movement is at least Effect of the Grip Factor on the resistance available from
equal to the yield strength of the bolt, is the total 10-ton roof bolts to react against roof loads. (A) Grip
bolt length L minus the length of the anchor: Factor = 0.5 tons/in; (B) Grip Factor = 1.0 ton/in.

LFR = L - LAnch
 CAUSES OF POOR RESIN BOLT ANCHORAGE

1. Weak rock
 It requires a longer grouted length to achieve the same anchorage as strong rock
 Low grip factor
2. Poor installation
 Defective grout can result from improper storage (too hot, too cold, too wet, or shelf life
exceeded), or (rarely) from manufacturing problems.
 Improper mixing can occur if the proper spin time is not followed. Underspinning can
result in inadequate mixing, while overspinning can destroy the partially cured resin.
Improper mixing can also occur with long bolts where the top of the hole has less time to
mix before the bottom sets up. The temperature of the resin at the time of installation can
also affect the cure time.
 Improper holes can be too long, too short, too large, or too smooth. The proper grout
cartridge must also be matched to the hole and the bolt being installed.
 Finger gloving occurs when the plastic cartridge wrapper remains intact around the
hardened resin. It is more likely if the bolt is not rotated as it is inserted in the hole.
 IMPROVING THE PERFORMANCE OF FULLY GROUTED BOLTS

If anchorage is poor in SEPT

 check the quality of the installation
 If the grout and the installation procedure are found to be adequate, then attention should shift
to the hole and the bolt. Because resin grout acts by mechanical interlock, not by adhesion,
rifled holes and rougher bolt profiles result in better anchorage
 Another possibility is to reduce the hole annulus
 Larger holes can result in poor resin mixing and a greater likelihood of finger-gloving, with
adverse effects on anchorage
 Smaller holes, on the other hand, can cause insertion problems and magnify the effects of resin
losses in oversized holes
 Annuluses ranging from 2.54-6.35 mm all provided acceptable results in strong rock.
 No significant difference in the mean anchorage strength between annuluses of 3.175 and 6.35
mm, but the standard deviation was much higher for the larger annulus.
 In very severe conditions, the only way to increase anchorage may be to increase both the hole
diameter and the bar diameter. This enlarges the area of the grout-rock contact surface,
thereby increasing the total shear resistance
Bolt Length
Anchorage testing of cable bolt support

Grouted cable bolt

Bridge element

Hydraulic
Hydraulic hand
jack pump
Circular
ring
Conical wedge

Testing of total grouted length

Anchorage testing of cable bolt support

1.5m

Hydraulic hand Hydraulic hand

pump pump

Testing after 1st cycle of roof blasting Testing after 2nd cycle of roof blasting
Arrangement of in situ pull-out test
 Arrangement of in situ pull-out test

Reading (0) before pulling

Ready for test

Reading (15t) during pulling

Anchorage test result of the cable bolts grouted with
hardcrete
Cable Anchor. Anchor. Anchor. Remarks
bolt No. strength after strength after 5 strength
2 hr. hr. after 8 hr.
1. 3 te - - Failed after taking 3 te of load
2. 3.5 te - - Failed after taking 3.5 te of load
3. 2.5 te - - Failed after taking 2.5 te of load
4. - - - Failed just after application of load
due to improper grouting
5. - 5.5 te - Failed after taking 5.5 te of load
6. - 6 te - Failed after taking 6 te of load
7. - 5.5 te - Failed after taking 5.5 te of load
8. - - 18 te Stable, further no load is applied
9. - - 18 te Stable, further no load is applied
Mechanism of load transfer between a resin-bonded bolt and rock mass
(Fabjanczyk and Tarrant et all ,1992)
Displacement of bolt relative to the rock produces outward forces in the resin annulus.

Rock mass
Grout
Bolt
Confinement

Force
MN4021:MPD
 Failure mechanism of rock bolt/cable bolt
1. Failure of system
The reinforcement system failed
• Shear or yield strength of individual components of the system
exceeded by the shear, compressive or tensile stresses generated with
bed separation
• Induced shear stress exceeds the shear strength between the
interfaces.
2. Failure of surrounding rock mass
 Having weak/laminated strata/geological discontinuities
 Considerable roof sagging with time under influence of induce
stresses.
 Failure modes of rock bolts

Bolt Bolt-grout interface

Failure surface

Grout-rock interface Rock mass split

 Failure mechanism of rock bolt/cable bolt
Bond Strength Model (Yazici and Kaiser (1992)

Bond strength is mainly frictional and hence depends on the pressure build-up at
the interface which in turn depends on the dilational movement against the
confining grout or rock.

where s is the shear or bond stress; σ is the radial stress at the

bolt-grout interface; i0 the dilation angle at the bolt-grout
interface given by surface geometry; β is the reduction
coefficient of dilation angle; the compressive strength of
grout; and is the friction angle between the steel and grout

geometry of a rough cable bolt

Highwall Mining
Bond Strength Model (Yazici and Kaiser (1992)
The BSM involves four main components; axial displacement, lateral displacement, confining pressure and
bond strength.

Interrelated components in four quadrants:

1. The first quadrant shows the variation of bond strength with axial displacement. It represents the
pullout test graph;

2. The second quadrant relates the confining pressure at the bolt-grout interface to the bond strength
using bond strength Equation;

3. The third quadrant shows the relationship between axial and lateral displacements. Since the apparent
dilation angle is not constant, the relation is non-linear and asymptotically approaches an ultimate
lateral displacement;

4. The dilation acts outward on the grout column and creates the interface pressure as illustrated by the
fourth quadrant. The straight lines show that the grout may split under the dilational pressure
In the fourth quadrant of the BSM, the dilatational behavior of grout is: (1) elastic; (2) fully split or (3) a transition
zone of partially split with an elastic portion.
Combining the above three equations, the displacement at the bolt–
grout interface can be expressed in terms of the internal pressure in
the form

Dilatational behaviour of grout.

Displacement at the bolt–grout interface for the totally split grout cylinder is:
 Successive stages in the failure during a pull test
The mechanical interlock and frictional resistance is
related with the initial linear response during a pull test

From stage 2
• The failure mechanism is dependent on the radial
confining pressure.
• The stress drop may correspond to radial fracturing of
the grout annulus and/or shear failure through the grout
flutes.
• Cable displacement increases.
• Grout annulus can be pushed aside is determined by the
radial stiffness of the confining medium.
• When the radial stiffness is low, the favorable failure
mechanism is lateral displacement of the wedges;
• when it is higher, dilation is suppressed and failure is
more likely to occur by shear of the grout flutes and pull
out along a cylindrical frictional surface.
Application of Numerical Modelling
Simulation for estimation of angle of draw based on
excavation width and depth of cover

Roof up to the surface

23

Coal seam

Panel width,120 m

Floor
70
Numerical simulation for caving angle with excavation width

1 Pillar Width 2 Pillar Width

3 Pillar Width 4 Pillar Width 71

Numerical modelling finds a wide range of applications in assessing
pillar system behaviour and strength, ground control as with
analytical techniques, can give valuable insight and direction to
design and stability assessment

However, unreliable outcomes are often produced or the full

potential of numerical modelling is not realised because the
required input data does not exist or because the modeller has a
poor understanding of the scope, limitations and operation of
numerical modelling codes and techniques.
 Benefits of Numerical modelling
• analyse coal pillar systems on a regional as well as a local basis;
• more accurately define the pre-mining environment, including the disposition, composition and
geomechanical properties of strata, horizontal stress fields, joints, bedding planes and other
geological structures, all of which have the potential to impact critically on coal pillar system
performance
• more accurately estimate pillar load in general and, in particular, in irregular mining layouts, by
taking account of the stiffness of both the surrounding strata and the individual coal pillars
• model the process of mining to incorporate mining-induced changes in stress fields, such as
associated with the formation of goaves;
• analyse the behaviour of the roof/pillar/floor system as a composite structure;
• apply more sophisticated failure criteria and to undertake an assessment of the various
constitutive laws that may apply to the given circumstances;
• simultaneously assess multiple potential failure modes e.g. shear fracture, tensile failure, bedding
plane shear;
Benefits of Numerical modelling
• quantify stress paths and track changes in failure modes;
• facilitate the evaluation of parameter variations on pillar system behaviour;
• identify the criticality of individual parameters on pillar system behaviour and
performance
• eliminate the guesswork in choosing the mechanism or mechanisms that may
ultimately bring about failure;
• quantify the locations of failure, the effect of failure on stress redistribution and
residual strength properties, and post-failure behaviour;
• simulate the effect of pillar system behaviour on roadway behaviour and vice versa;
and
• incorporate time and loading rate effects on pillar system behaviour.
 Step for quarter symmetry modelling

1. Generate block
2. Assign constitutive model and properties to strata
3. Fix boundary
4. Initiate In-situ stress
5. Applied truncated load (for unmodelled depth of cover)
6. Solve (insitu model)
7. Excavate (model null range)
8. Solve (Quarter symmetry model)
9. Initiate Z velocity
10.Define stress
11.Define vertical displacement
12.Plot history
13.Solve
New Numerical modelling procedure- A Simple Example
;;floor=5
gen zone brick p0 (0, 0,-20) p1 (40,0,-20) p2 (0,40,-20) p3 (0,0,0) size (40,40,10) ratio (1,1,0.9) group floor
;;coal=4 ini xdisp=0
gen zone brick p0 (0,0,0) p1 (40,0,0) p2 (0,40,0) p3 (0,0,4) size (40,40,8) ratio (1,1,1) group coal ini ydisp=0
;;roof=5 ini zdisp=0
gen zone brick p0 (0,0,4) p1 (40,0,4) p2 (0,40,4) p3 (0,0,24) size (40,40,40) ratio (1,1,1) group roof model null range x(17.5,22.5) y(10,30) z(0,4)
;; floor=5 step 50
model mech elastic range group floor sel cable id 1 begin (20,20,4) end (20,20,5.8) nseg 9
prop dens 2500 bulk 4.67e9 shear 2.80e9 range group floor sel cable pretension 2.94e4
;;coal=4 sel cable prop emod=2.06e11 ytens=2.7e5 xcarea=3.8e-4 gr_coh=2.5e5
model mech elastic range group coal gr_k=2.0e9 gr_per=8.48e-2
prop den 1440 bulk 1.67e9 shear 1.00e9 range group coal step 2000
;;roof=5 save dev.sav
model mech elastic range group roof
prop dens 2500 bulk 4.67e9 shear 2.80e9 range group roof

;boundary condition
fix x range x -0.1 0.1
fix x range x 39.9 40.1
fix y range y -0.1 0.1
fix y range y 39.9 40.1
fix z range z -20.1 -19.9
p1
;******insitu stress
set gravity 9.81
p3
;sxx=syy=2.4+0.01h
;h= 100m
;szz=0.025h
ini sxx= -3.40e6 grad 0 0 0.010e6 range z -20 24
ini syy= -3.400e6 grad 0 0 0.010e6 range z -20 24
ini szz= -2.500e6 grad 0 0 0.025e6 range z -20 24 p2 p0
;truncated overburden load for 76m
apply szz= -1.9e6 range z 23.9 24.1
Solve
save insitu.sav
CALIBRATION OF MODEL
Design applied support using numerical modelling
Ribs (under stress)

Coal exists in sedimentary rock formation which is

Stowed void
inhomogeneous and anisotropic in properties.
Considering the uncertainty during actual field
practice, RLH in the numerical models is defined Goaf filled with sand

as the height of the immediate roof strata up to 1.5

RLH examined
safety factor contour. area
Split

RLH is measured at the goaf edge without using Slice

Goaf edge
rock bolt supports in the models.
Line of extraction

It is examined in the middle portion of the panels when maximum diagonal length of line of extraction is attained
to develop maximum induced stress during depillaring.

A section of working height including immediate roof strata is cut along red dotted line as shown in Figure.
 Application of numerical modelling in support design and strata control
during underground mining

Original gallery,
Two rows of 1.8m long bolts for RLH= 1.75m
RBGES

1.6m
Goaf edge, RLH=1-1.2m

Rib, 3 m

Roof of split

1.5 m long bolts for other than

RBGES

1st slice of a fender under

extraction

The values of RLH measured at goaf edge without RBGES is shown in Figure (left side).

Significant improvement in safety factor at the goaf edge is observed after application of RBGES (Right side).
Formulation for roof bolt-based goaf edge support during depillaring with stowing

where, rock load height at goaf edge in meter during depillaring with stowing, H is depth of cover in meter, W is
width of gallery in meter, RMR is Rock Mass Rating

Developed empirical formula for design of goaf edge support for semi-mechanised depillaring with stowing method of
strata control management in goaf is valid for depth of cover from 76-192m, rock mass rating from 42-58.5 and
gallery width from 4 to 5.5m.

It is also found that 1.8-2.0m bolt length for the RBGES is suitable for the studied range of variation in geo-mining
conditions.

Further, it would improve the mining cycle time and reduce the consumption of timber with the application of
RBGES during depillaring with stowing method of strata control management.
Assignment for Review
 Thank you

Email: [email protected]
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MN4021:MPD