Number Theory and

Cryptography

Chapter 4

With Question/Answer Animations

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 •
Chapter Motivation
Number theory is the part of mathematics devoted to the study
of the integers and their properties.
• Key ideas in number theory include divisibility and the primality
of integers.
• Representations of integers, including binary and hexadecimal
representations, are part of number theory.
• Number theory has long been studied because of the beauty of
its ideas, its accessibility, and its wealth of open questions.
• We’ll use many ideas developed in Chapter 1 about proof
methods and proof strategy in our exploration of number theory.
• Mathematicians have long considered number theory to be pure
mathematics, but it has important applications to computer
science and cryptography studied in Sections 4.5 and 4.6.

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 Chapter Summary
Divisibility and Modular Arithmetic
Integer Representations and Algorithms
Primes and Greatest Common Divisors
Solving Congruences
Applications of Congruences
Cryptography

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 Divisibility and Modular
Arithmetic
Section 4.1

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 Section Summary 1

Division
Division Algorithm
Modular Arithmetic

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 Division
Definition: If a and b are integers with a ≠ 0, then a
divides b if there exists an integer c such that b = ac.
• When a divides b we say that a is a factor or divisor of b
and that b is a multiple of a.
• The notation a | b denotes that a divides b.
• If a | b, then b/a is an integer.
• If a does not divide b, we write a ∤ b.

Example: Determine whether 3 | 7 and whether

3 | 12.
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 Properties of Divisibility
Theorem 1: Let a, b, and c be integers, where a ≠0.
i. If a | b and a | c, then a | (b + c);
ii. If a | b, then a | bc for all integers c;
iii. If a | b and b | c, then a | c.
Proof: (i) Suppose a | b and a | c, then it follows that there are
integers s and t with b = as and c = at. Hence,
b + c = as + at = a(s + t). Hence, a | (b + c)
(Exercises 3 and 4 ask for proofs of parts (ii) and (iii).)
Corollary: If a, b, and c be integers, where a ≠0, such that a | b and
a | c, then a | mb + nc whenever m and n are integers.
Can you show how it follows easily from (ii) and (i) of Theorem 1?

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 Division Algorithm
When an integer is divided by a positive integer, there is a quotient and a
remainder. This is traditionally called the “Division Algorithm,” but is really a
theorem.
Division Algorithm: If a is an integer and d a positive integer, then there are
unique integers q and r, with 0 ≤ r < d, such that a = dq + r (proved in Section 5.2).
• d is called the divisor.
• a is called the dividend. Definitions of Functions
div and mod
• q is called the quotient.
• r is called the remainder. q = a div d
Examples: r = a mod d
• What are the quotient and remainder when 101 is divided by 11?
• Solution: The quotient when 101 is divided by 11 is 9 = 101 div 11, and the
remainder is 2 = 101 mod 11.
• What are the quotient and remainder when −11 is divided by 3?
• Solution: The quotient when −11 is divided by 3 is −4 = −11 div 3, and the remainder
is 1 = −11 mod 3.

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 Congruence Relation
Definition: If a and b are integers and m is a positive integer, then a
is congruent to b modulo m if m divides a − b.
• The notation a ≡ b (mod m) says that a is congruent to b modulo m.
• We say that a ≡ b (mod m) is a congruence and that m is its modulus.
• Two integers are congruent mod m if and only if they have the same
remainder when divided by m.
• If a is not congruent to b modulo m, we write a ≢ b (mod m)

Example: Determine whether 17 is congruent to 5 modulo 6 and

whether 24 and 14 are congruent modulo 6.
Solution:
• 17 ≡ 5 (mod 6) because 6 divides 17 − 5 = 12.
• 24 ≢ 14 (mod 6) since 24 − 14 = 10 is not divisible by 6.
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 More on Congruences
Theorem 4: Let m be a positive integer. The
integers a and b are congruent modulo m if and
only if there is an integer k such that a = b + km.
Proof:
• If a ≡ b (mod m), then (by the definition of
congruence) m | a − b. Hence, there is an integer k
such that a − b = km and equivalently a = b + km.
• Conversely, if there is an integer k such that a = b +
km, then km = a − b. Hence, m | a − b and a ≡ b
(mod m).
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 The Relationship between
(mod m) and mod m Notations
The use of “mod” in a ≡ b (mod m) and a mod m =
b are different.
• a ≡ b (mod m) is a relation on the set of integers.
• In a mod m = b, the notation mod denotes a function.

The relationship between these notations is made

clear in this theorem.
Theorem 3: Let a and b be integers, and let m be a
positive integer. Then a ≡ b (mod m) if and only if a
mod m = b mod m. (Proof in the exercises)
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 Congruences of Sums and Products
Theorem 5: Let m be a positive integer. If a ≡ b (mod m) and c ≡
d (mod m), then a + c ≡ b + d (mod m) and ac ≡ bd (mod m)
Proof:
• Because a ≡ b (mod m) and c ≡ d (mod m), by Theorem 4 there are
integers s and t with b = a + sm and d = c + tm.
• Therefore,
• b + d = (a + sm) + (c + tm) = (a + c) + m(s + t) and
• b d = (a + sm) (c + tm) = ac + m(at + cs + stm).
• Hence, a + c ≡ b + d (mod m) and ac ≡ bd (mod m).
Example: Because 7 ≡ 2 (mod 5) and 11 ≡ 1 (mod 5) , it follows
from Theorem 5 that
18 = 7 + 11 ≡ 2 + 1 = 3 (mod 5)
77 = 7 ∙ 11 ≡ 2 ∙ 1 = 2 (mod 5)
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Algebraic Manipulation of Congruences
1. Multiplying both sides of a valid congruence by an integer preserves
validity.
If a ≡ b (mod m) holds then c∙a ≡ c∙b (mod m), where c is any integer,
holds by Theorem 5 with d = c.
2. Adding an integer to both sides of a valid congruence preserves
validity.
If a ≡ b (mod m) holds then c + a ≡ c + b (mod m), where c is any integer,
holds by Theorem 5 with d = c.
3. Dividing a congruence by an integer does not always produce a valid
congruence.
Example: The congruence 14≡ 8 (mod 6) holds. But dividing both sides by
2 does not produce a valid congruence since 14/2 = 7 and 8/2 = 4, but
7≢4 (mod 6).
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 Computing the mod m Function of
Products and Sums
We use the following corollary to Theorem 5 to
compute the remainder of the product or sum of
two integers when divided by m from the
remainders when each is divided by m.
Corollary: Let m be a positive integer and let a and
b be integers. Then
(a + b) (mod m) = ((a mod m) + (b mod m)) mod m
and
ab mod m = ((a mod m) (b mod m)) mod m. (proof
in text)
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 Arithmetic Modulo m 1

Definitions: Let Zm be the set of nonnegative integers less

than m: {0,1, …., m−1}
• The operation +m is defined as a +m b = (a + b) mod m. This is
addition modulo m.
• The operation ∙m is defined as a ∙m b = (a ∙ b) mod m. This is
multiplication modulo m.
• Using these operations is said to be doing arithmetic modulo m.
Example: Find 7 +11 9 and 7 ∙11 9.
Solution: Using the definitions above:
• 7 +11 9 = (7 + 9) mod 11 = 16 mod 11 = 5

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• 7 ∙11 9 = (7 ∙ 9) mod 11 = 63 mod 11 = 8
 Arithmetic Modulo m 2

The operations +m and ∙m satisfy many of the same

properties as ordinary addition and multiplication.
• Closure: If a and b belong to Zm , then a +m b and a ∙m b belong
to Zm .
• Associativity: If a, b, and c belong to Zm , then (a +m b) +m c = a
+m (b +m c) and (a ∙m b) ∙m c = a ∙m (b ∙m c).
• Commutativity: If a and b belong to Zm , then
a +m b = b +m a and a ∙m b = b ∙m
a.
• Identity elements: The elements 0 and 1 are identity elements
for addition and multiplication modulo m, respectively.
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 Arithmetic Modulo m 3

• Additive inverses: If a≠ 0 belongs to Zm , then m− a is the additive

inverse of a modulo m and 0 is its own additive inverse.
• a +m (m− a ) = 0 and 0 +m 0 = 0

• Distributivity: If a, b, and c belong to Zm , then

• a ∙m (b +m c) = (a ∙m b) +m (a ∙m c) and (a +m b) ∙m c = (a ∙m c) +m (b ∙m
c).

Exercises 42-44 ask for proofs of these properties.

Multiplicatative inverses have not been included since they do not
always exist. For example, there is no multiplicative inverse of 2
modulo 6.
(optional) Using the terminology of abstract algebra, Zm with +m is
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 Integer Representations and
Algorithms
Section 4.2

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 Section Summary 2

Integer Representations
• Base b Expansions
• Binary Expansions
• Octal Expansions
• Hexadecimal Expansions

Base Conversion Algorithm

Algorithms for Integer Operations

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 Representations of Integers
In the modern world, we use decimal, or base 10,
notation to represent integers. For example when
we write 965, we mean 9∙102 + 6∙101 + 5∙100 .
We can represent numbers using any base b, where
b is a positive integer greater than 1.
The bases b = 2 (binary), b = 8 (octal) , and b = 16
(hexadecimal) are important for computing and
communications
The ancient Mayans used base 20 and the ancient
Babylonians used base 60.
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 Base b Representations
We can use positive integer b greater than 1 as a base, because of
this theorem:
Theorem 1: Let b be a positive integer greater than 1. Then if n is a
positive integer, it can be expressed uniquely in the form:
n = akbk + ak-1bk-1 + …. + a1b + a0
where k is a nonnegative integer, a0,a1,…. ak are nonnegative
integers less than b, and ak≠ 0. The aj, j = 0,…,k are called the base-
b digits of the representation.
(We will prove this using mathematical induction in Section 5.1.)
The representation of n given in Theorem 1 is called the base b
expansion of n and is denoted by (akak-1….a1a0)b.
We usually omit the subscript 10 for base 10 expansions.
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 Binary Expansions
Most computers represent integers and do arithmetic with
binary (base 2) expansions of integers. In these expansions,
the only digits used are 0 and 1.
Example: What is the decimal expansion of the integer that
has (1 0101 1111)2 as its binary expansion?
Solution:
(1 0101 1111)2 = 1∙28 + 0∙27 + 1∙26 + 0∙25 + 1∙24 + 1∙23 +
1∙22 + 1∙21 + 1∙20 =351.
Example: What is the decimal expansion of the integer that
has (11011)2 as its binary expansion?
Solution: (11011)2 = 1 ∙24 + 1∙23 + 0∙22 + 1∙21 + 1∙20 =27.
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 Octal Expansions
The octal expansion (base 8) uses the digits
{0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7}.
Example: What is the decimal expansion of the
number with octal expansion (7016)8 ?
Solution: 7∙83 + 0∙82 + 1∙81 + 6∙80 =3598
Example: What is the decimal expansion of the
number with octal expansion (111)8 ?
Solution: 1∙82 + 1∙81 + 1∙80 = 64 + 8 + 1 = 73
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 Hexadecimal Expansions
The hexadecimal expansion needs 16 digits, but our decimal
system provides only 10. So letters are used for the
additional symbols. The hexadecimal system uses the digits
{0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F}. The letters A through F
represent the decimal numbers 10 through 15.
Example: What is the decimal expansion of the number with
hexadecimal expansion (2AE0B)16 ?
Solution:
2∙164 + 10∙163 + 14∙162 + 0∙161 + 11∙160 =175627
Example: What is the decimal expansion of the number with
hexadecimal expansion (E5)16 ?
Solution: 14∙161 + 5∙160 = 224 + 5 = 229
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 Base Conversion 1

To construct the base b expansion of an integer n:

• Divide n by b to obtain a quotient and remainder.
n = bq0 + a0 0 ≤ a0 ≤ b
• The remainder, a0 , is the rightmost digit in the base b
expansion of n. Next, divide q0 by b.
q0 = bq1 + a1 0 ≤ a1 ≤ b
• The remainder, a1, is the second digit from the right in the
base b expansion of n.
• Continue by successively dividing the quotients by b,
obtaining the additional base b digits as the remainder.
The process terminates when the quotient is 0.
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 Algorithm: Constructing Base b
Expansions
procedure base b expansion(n, b: positive integers with b > 1)
q := n
k := 0
while (q ≠ 0)
ak := q mod b
q := q div b
k := k + 1

return(ak-1 ,…, a1,a0){(ak-1 … a1a0)b is base b expansion of n}

• q represents the quotient obtained by successive divisions by b, starting

with q = n.
• The digits in the base b expansion are the remainders of the division given
by q mod b.
• The algorithm terminates when q = 0 is reached.
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 Base Conversion 2

Example: Find the octal expansion of (12345)10

Solution: Successively dividing by 8 gives:
• 12345 = 8 ∙ 1543 + 1
• 1543 = 8 ∙ 192 + 7
• 192 = 8 ∙ 24 + 0
• 24 = 8 ∙ 3 + 0
• 3 =8∙0+3
The remainders are the digits from right to left
yielding (30071)8.
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Comparison of Hexadecimal, Octal, and
Binary Representations
TABLE 1 Hexadecimal, Octal, and Binary Representation of the Integers 0 through 15.
Decimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Hexadecimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F

Octal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

Binary 0 1 10 11 100 101 110 111 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111

Initial 0s are not shown

• Each octal digit corresponds to a block of 3 binary digits.

• Each hexadecimal digit corresponds to a block of 4 binary
digits.
• So, conversion between binary, octal, and hexadecimal is
easy.
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 Conversion Between Binary, Octal, and
Hexadecimal Expansions
Example: Find the octal and hexadecimal expansions
of (11 1110 1011 1100)2.
Solution:
• To convert to octal, we group the digits into blocks of
three (011 111 010 111 100)2, adding initial 0s as needed.
The blocks from left to right correspond to the digits
3,7,2,7, and 4. Hence, the solution is (37274) 8.
• To convert to hexadecimal, we group the digits into blocks
of four (0011 1110 1011 1100)2, adding initial 0s as
needed. The blocks from left to right correspond to the
digits 3,E,B, and C. Hence, the solution is (3EBC) 16.
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 Binary Addition of Integers
Algorithms for performing operations with integers using their binary
expansions are important as computer chips work with binary numbers. Each
digit is called a bit.
procedure add(a, b: positive integers)
{the binary expansions of a and b are (an-1,an-2,…,a0)2 and (bn-1,bn-2,…,b0)2,
respectively}
c := 0
for j := 0 to n − 1
d := ⌊(aj + bj + c)/2⌋
sj := aj + bj + c − 2d
c := d
sn := c
return(s0,s1,…, sn){the binary expansion of the sum is (sn,sn-1,…,s0)2}
The number of additions of bits used by the algorithm to add two n-bit
integers is O(n).
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 Primes and Greatest
Common Divisors
Section 4.3

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 Section Summary 3

Prime Numbers and their Properties

Conjectures and Open Problems About Primes
Greatest Common Divisors and Least Common
Multiples
The Euclidian Algorithm
gcds as Linear Combinations

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 Primes
Definition: A positive integer p greater than 1 is
called prime if the only positive factors of p are 1
and p. A positive integer that is greater than 1
and is not prime is called composite.
Example: The integer 7 is prime because its only
positive factors are 1 and 7, but 9 is composite
because it is divisible by 3.

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 The Fundamental Theorem of
Arithmetic
Theorem: Every positive integer greater than 1
can be written uniquely as a prime or as the
product of two or more primes where the prime
factors are written in order of nondecreasing size.
Examples:
• 100 = 2 ∙ 2 ∙ 5 ∙ 5 = 22 ∙ 52
• 641 = 641
• 999 = 3 ∙ 3 ∙ 3 ∙ 37 = 33 ∙ 37
• 1024 = 2 ∙ 2 ∙ 2 ∙ 2 ∙ 2 ∙ 2 ∙ 2 ∙ 2 ∙ 2 ∙ 2 = 210
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 The Sieve of Erastosthenes 1

The Sieve of Erastosthenes can be used to find

all primes not exceeding a specified positive
integer. For example, begin with the list of
integers between 1 and 100. Erastothenes
(276-194 B.C.)
a. Delete all the integers, other than 2, divisible by 2.
b. Delete all the integers, other than 3, divisible by 3.
c. Next, delete all the integers, other than 5, divisible by 5.
d. Next, delete all the integers, other than 7, divisible by 7.
e. Since all the remaining integers are not divisible by any of the
previous integers, other than 1, the primes are:
{2,3,5,7,11,15,1719,23,29,31,37,41,43,47,53,59,61,67,71,73,79,83,89,
97}
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 The Sieve of Erastosthenes 2

If an integer n is a
composite integer, then
it has a prime divisor
less than or equal to √n.
To see this, note that if
n = ab, then a ≤ √n or b
≤√n.
Trial division, a very
inefficient method of
determining if a number
n is prime, is to try
every integer i ≤√n and
see if n is divisible by i.
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 Distribution of Primes
Mathematicians have been interested in the distribution
of prime numbers among the positive integers. In the
nineteenth century, the prime number theorem was
proved which gives an asymptotic estimate for the
number of primes not exceeding x.
Prime Number Theorem: The ratio of the number of
primes not exceeding x and x/ln x approaches 1 as x
grows without bound. (ln x is the natural logarithm of x)
• The theorem tells us that the number of primes not exceeding
x, can be approximated by x/ln x.
• The odds that a randomly selected positive integer less than n
is prime are approximately (n/ln n)/n = 1/ln n.
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 Greatest Common Divisor 1

Definition: Let a and b be integers, not both zero. The largest

integer d such that d | a and also d | b is called the greatest
common divisor of a and b. The greatest common divisor of
a and b is denoted by gcd(a,b).
One can find greatest common divisors of small numbers by
inspection.
Example: What is the greatest common divisor of 24 and 36?
Solution: gcd(24, 36) = 12
Example: What is the greatest common divisor of 17 and 22?
Solution: gcd(17,22) = 1
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 Greatest Common Divisor 2

Definition: The integers a and b are relatively prime if their greatest

common divisor is 1.
Example: 17 and 22
Definition: The integers a1, a2, …, an are pairwise relatively prime if gcd(ai,
aj) = 1 whenever 1 ≤ i<j ≤n.
Example: Determine whether the integers 10, 17 and 21 are pairwise
relatively prime.
Solution: Because gcd(10,17) = 1, gcd(10,21) = 1, and gcd(17,21) = 1, 10,
17, and 21 are pairwise relatively prime.
Example: Determine whether the integers 10, 19, and 24 are pairwise
relatively prime.
Solution: Because gcd(10,24) = 2, 10, 19, and 24 are not pairwise
relatively prime.
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 Finding the Greatest Common Divisor
Using Prime Factorizations
Suppose the prime factorizations of a and b are:

a  p1a1 p2a2  pnan , b  p1b1 p2b2  pnbn ,

where each exponent is a nonnegative integer, and where all primes
occurring in either prime factorization are included in both. Then:
min an ,bn 
gcd a, b   p1min a1 ,b1  p2min a2 ,b2   pn ,
This formula is valid since the integer on the right (of the equals sign)
divides both a and b. No larger integer can divide both a and b.
Example: 120 = 23 ∙3 ∙5 500 = 22 ∙53
gcd(120,500) = 2min(3,2) ∙3min(1,0) ∙5min(1,3) = 22 ∙30 ∙51 = 20
Finding the gcd of two positive integers using their prime factorizations
is not efficient because there is no efficient algorithm for finding the
prime factorization of a positive integer.
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 Least Common Multiple
Definition: The least common multiple of the positive integers a and b is
the smallest positive integer that is divisible by both a and b. It is
denoted by lcm(a,b).
The least common multiple can also be computed from the prime
factorizations. max a1 ,b1  max a2 ,b2  max an ,bn 
lcm a, b   p1 p2  pn ,
This number is divided by both a and b and no smaller number is divided
by a and b.
Example: lcm(233572, 2433) = 2max(3,4) 3max(5,3) 7max(2,0) = 24 35 72
The greatest common divisor and the least common multiple of two
integers are related by:
Theorem 5: Let a and b be positive integers. Then
ab = gcd(a,b) ∙lcm(a,b)
(proof is Exercise 31)
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Applications of Congruences
Section 4.5

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 Section Summary 5

Hashing Functions
Pseudorandom Numbers
Check Digits

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 Hashing Functions
Definition: A hashing function h assigns memory location h(k) to the record that has k as
its key.
• A common hashing function is h(k) = k mod m, where m is the number of memory locations.
• Because this hashing function is onto, all memory locations are possible.
Example: Let h(k) = k mod 111. This hashing function assigns the records of customers
with social security numbers as keys to memory locations in the following manner:
h(064212848) = 064212848 mod 111 = 14
h(037149212) = 037149212 mod 111 = 65
h(107405723) = 107405723 mod 111 = 14, but since location 14 is already occupied, the
record is assigned to the next available position, which is 15.
The hashing function is not one-to-one as there are many more possible keys than
memory locations. When more than one record is assigned to the same location, we say
a collision occurs. Here a collision has been resolved by assigning the record to the first
free location.
For collision resolution, we can use a linear probing function:
h(k,i) = (h(k) + i) mod m, where i runs from 0 to m − 1.
There are many other methods of handling with collisions. You may cover these in a
later CS course.
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 Pseudorandom Numbers 1

Randomly chosen numbers are needed for many purposes, including

computer simulations.
Pseudorandom numbers are not truly random since they are generated
by systematic methods.
The linear congruential method is one commonly used procedure for
generating pseudorandom numbers.
Four integers are needed: the modulus m, the multiplier a, the
increment c, and seed x0, with 2 ≤ a < m, 0 ≤ c < m, 0 ≤ x0 < m.
We generate a sequence of pseudorandom numbers {xn}, with
0 ≤ xn < m for all n, by successively using the recursively defined
xn 1 axn  c  mod m.
function
(an example of a recursive definition, discussed in Section 5.3)
If psuedorandom numbers between 0 and 1 are needed, then the
generated numbers are divided by the modulus, xn /m.
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 Pseudorandom Numbers 2

congruential method with modulus m = 9, multiplier a = 7, increment c = 4, and seed

Example: Find the sequence of pseudorandom numbers generated by the linear

x0 = 3.
Solution: Compute the terms of the sequence by successively using the congruence
xn 1  (7 xn  4) mod 9, with x0 3.
x1 7 x0  4 mod 9 7 3  4 mod 9  25 mod 9 7,
x2 7 x1  4 mod 9 7 7  4 mod 9  53 mod 9 8,
x3 7 x2  4 mod 9 7 8  4 mod 9  60 mod 9 6,
x4 7 x3  4 mod 9 7 6  4 mod 9  46 mod 9 1,
x5 7 x4  4 mod 9 7 1  4 mod 9  11 mod 9 2,
x6 7 x5  4 mod 9 7 2  4 mod 9  18 mod 9 0,
x7 7 x6  4 mod 9 7 0  4 mod 9  4 mod 9 4,
x8 7 x7  4 mod 9 7 4  4 mod 9  32 mod 9 5,

The sequence generated is 3,7,8,6,1,2,0,4,5,3,7,8,6,1,2,0,4,5,3,…

x9 7 x8  4 mod 9 7 5  4 mod 9  39 mod 9 3.

It repeats after generating 9 terms.

Commonly, computers use a linear congruential generator with increment c = 0. This is
called a pure multiplicative generator. Such a generator with modulus 231 − 1 and
multiplier 75 = 16,807 generates 231 − 2 numbers before repeating.
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 Check Digits: UPCs
A common method of detecting errors in strings of digits is to add an extra digit at the
end, which is evaluated using a function. If the final digit is not correct, then the string is
assumed not to be correct.
Example: Retail products are identified by their Universal Product Codes (UPCs). Usually
these have 12 decimal digits, the last one being the check digit. The check digit is
determined by the congruence:
3x1 + x2 + 3x3 + x4 + 3x5 + x6 + 3x7 + x8 + 3x9 + x10 + 3x11 + x12 ≡ 0 (mod 10).
a. Suppose that the first 11 digits of the UPC are 79357343104. What is the check digit?
b. Is 041331021641 a valid UPC?
Solution:
c. 3∙7 + 9 + 3∙3 + 5 + 3∙7 + 3 + 3∙4 + 3 + 3∙1 + 0 + 3∙4 + x12 ≡ 0 (mod 10)
21 + 9 + 9 + 5 + 21 + 3 + 12+ 3 + 3 + 0 + 12 + x12 ≡ 0 (mod 10)
98 + x12 ≡ 0 (mod 10)
x12 ≡ 2 (mod 10) So, the check digit is 2.
d. 3∙0 + 4 + 3∙1 + 3 + 3∙3 + 1 + 3∙0 + 2 + 3∙1 + 6 + 3∙4 + 1 ≡ 0 (mod 10)
0 + 4 + 3 + 3 + 9 + 1 + 0+ 2 + 3 + 6 + 12 + 1 = 44 ≡ 4 ≢ 0 (mod 10)
Hence, 041331021641 is not a valid UPC.
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 Check Digits:ISBNs
Books are identified by an International Standard Book Number (ISBN-10), a 10 digit code. The
first 9 digits identify the language, the publisher, and the book. The tenth digit is a check digit,
which is determined by the following congruence
9
x10  ixi mod 11.
i 1 9

The validity of an ISBN-10 number can be evaluated with the equivalent  ix i 0 mod 11.
i 1
a. Suppose that the first 9 digits of the ISBN-10 are 007288008. What is the check digit?
b. Is 084930149X a valid ISBN10?
X is used
Solution:
for the
a. X10 ≡ 1∙0 + 2∙0 + 3∙7 + 4∙2 + 5∙8 + 6∙8 + 7∙ 0 + 8∙0 + 9∙8 (mod 11). digit 10.
X10 ≡ 0 + 0 + 21 + 8 + 40 + 48 + 0 + 0 + 72 (mod 11).
X10 ≡ 189 ≡ 2 (mod 11). Hence, X10 = 2.
b. 1∙0 + 2∙8 + 3∙4 + 4∙9 + 5∙3 + 6∙0 + 7∙ 1 + 8∙4 + 9∙9 + 10∙10 =
0 + 16 + 12 + 36 + 15 + 0 + 7 + 32 + 81 + 100 = 299 ≡ 2 ≢ 0 (mod 11)
Hence, 084930149X is not a valid ISBN-10.
A single error is an error in one digit of an identification number and a transposition error is the
accidental interchanging of two digits. Both of these kinds of errors can be detected by the check
digit for ISBN-10. (see text for more details)
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Cryptography
Section 4.6

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 Caesar Cipher 1

Julius Caesar created secret messages by shifting each letter three letters forward in the
alphabet (sending the last three letters to the first three letters.) For example, the letter B
is replaced by E and the letter X is replaced by A. This process of making a message
secret is an example of encryption.
Here is how the encryption process works:
• Replace each letter by an integer from Z26, that is an integer from 0 to 25 representing one less
than its position in the alphabet.
• The encryption function is f(p) = (p + 3) mod 26. It replaces each integer p in the set {0,1,2,
…,25} by f(p) in the set {0,1,2,…,25} .
• Replace each integer p by the letter with the position p + 3 in the alphabet.

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 Caesar Cipher 2

Example: Encrypt the message “MEET YOU IN THE PARK” using the Caesar cipher.
Solution: 12 4 4 19 24 14 20 8 13 19 7 4 15 0 17 10.
Now replace each of these numbers p by f(p) = (p + 3) mod 26.
15 7 7 22 1 17 23 11 16 22 10 7 18 3 20 13.
Translating the numbers back to letters produces the encrypted message
“PHHW BRX LQ WKH SDUN.”

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 Caesar Cipher 3

To recover the original message, use f−1(p) = (p−3) mod 26. So,
each letter in the coded message is shifted back three letters in
the alphabet, with the first three letters sent to the last three
letters. This process of recovering the original message from the
encrypted message is called decryption.
The Caesar cipher is one of a family of ciphers called shift
ciphers. Letters can be shifted by an integer k, with 3 being just
one possibility. The encryption function is
f(p) = (p + k) mod 26
and the decryption function is
f−1(p) = (p−k) mod 26
The integer k is called a key.
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Shift Cipher 1

Example 1: Encrypt the message “STOP GLOBAL WARMING”

using the shift cipher with k = 11.
Solution: Replace each letter with the corresponding
element of Z26.

18 19 14 15 6 11 14 1 0 11 22 0 17 12 8 13 6.
Apply the shift f(p) = (p + 11) mod 26, yielding
3 4 25 0 17 22 25 12 11 22 7 11 2 23 19
24 17.
Translating the numbers back to letters produces the ciphertext
“DEZA RWZMLW HLCXTYR.”
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Shift Cipher 2

Example 2: Decrypt the message “LEWLYPLUJL PZ H NYLHA ALHJOLY”

that was encrypted using the shift cipher with k = 7.
Solution: Replace each letter with the corresponding element of Z26.
11 4 22 11 24 15 11 20 9 1 15 25 7 13 24 11 7 0 0 11 7
9 14 11 24.

Shift each of the numbers by −k = −7 modulo 26, yielding

4 23 15 4 17 8 4 13 2 4 8 18 0 6 17 4 0 19 19 4 0
2 7 4 17.

Translating the numbers back to letters produces the decrypted

message
“EXPERIENCE IS A GREAT TEACHER.”

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 Cryptanalysis of Shift Ciphers
The process of recovering plaintext from ciphertext without knowledge both of
the encryption method and the key is known as cryptanalysis or breaking
codes.
An important tool for cryptanalyzing ciphertext produced with a shift ciphers is
the relative frequencies of letters. The nine most common letters in the English
texts are E 13%, T 9%, A 8%, O 8%, I 7%, N 7%, S 7%, H 6%, and R 6%.
To analyze ciphertext:
• Find the frequency of the letters in the ciphertext.
• Hypothesize that the most frequent letter is produced by encrypting E.
• If the value of the shift from E to the most frequent letter is k, shift the ciphertext
by −k and see if it makes sense.
• If not, try T as a hypothesis and continue.
Example: We intercepted the message “ZNK KGXRE HOXJ MKZY ZNK CUXS” that
we know was produced by a shift cipher. Let’s try to cryptanalyze.
Solution: The most common letter in the ciphertext is K. So perhaps the letters
were shifted by 6 since this would then map E to K. Shifting the entire message
by −6 gives us “THE EARLY BIRD GETS THE WORM.”
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Block Ciphers 1

Ciphers that replace each letter of the alphabet by another letter

are called character or monoalphabetic ciphers.
They are vulnerable to cryptanalysis based on letter frequency.
Block ciphers avoid this problem, by replacing blocks of letters with
other blocks of letters.
A simple type of block cipher is called the transposition cipher. The
key is a permutation σ of the set {1,2,…,m}, where m is an integer,
that is a one-to-one function from {1,2,…,m} to itself.
To encrypt a message, split the letters into blocks of size m, adding
additional letters to fill out the final block. We encrypt p1,p2,…,pm as
c1,c2,…,cm = pσ(1),pσ(2),…,pσ(m).
To decrypt the c1,c2,…,cm transpose the letters using the inverse
permutation σ−1.
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 Block Ciphers 2

Example: Using the transposition cipher based on the

permutation σ of the set {1,2,3,4} with σ(1) = 3, σ(2) = 1,
σ(3) = 4, σ(4) = 2,
a. Encrypt the plaintext PIRATE ATTACK
b. Decrypt the ciphertext message SWUE TRAEOEHS, which was
encrypted using the same cipher.
Solution:
c. Split into four blocks PIRA TEAT TACK.
Apply the permutation σ giving IAPR ETTA AKTC.
d. σ−1 : σ −1(1) = 2, σ −1(2) = 4, σ −1(3) = 1, σ −1(4) = 3.
Apply the permutation σ−1 giving USEW ATER HOSE.
Split into words to obtain USE WATER HOSE.

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