Graphics Systems

Overview (Display Devices)

 Raster Scan Displays
 Random Scan Displays
 Color CRT Monirors
 Direct View Storage Tube
 Flat panel Displays
 Three Dimensional Viewing Devices
 Stereoscopic and Virtual Reality
System
 Overview (Display Devices)
 The display systems are
often referred to as Video
Monitor or Video Display
Unit (VDU).
 Display Hardware
 Video Display Devices
 The primary output device in
a graphics system is a
monitor.
 Video Monitor

Cathode Ray Tube

(CRT)
How Monitor Works?
 Electrons travel through a vacuum sealed
container from the cathode (negative) to the
anode (positive).
 Because the electrons are negatively charged,
they are repelled away from the cathode, and
move across the tube to the anode.
 The ray can be affected by a magnet because of
its relation to positive and negative charges
 Refresh CRT
 Light emitted by the Phosphor
fades very rapidly.

Refresh CRT: One way to keep the
phosphor glowing is to redraw
the picture repeatedly by quickly
directing the electron beam back
over the same points.
Electron Gun
 Electron Gun
 Heat is supplied to the cathode by
the filament.
 Electron Gun
 The free electrons are then
accelerated toward the
phosphor coating by a high
positive voltage.
 High Positive Voltage
 A positively charged metal coating on the
inside of the CRT envelope near the phosphor
screen.

A positively charged metal

 High Positive Voltage
 An accelerating anode .
 Electron Gun
 Intensity of the electron beam is
controlled by setting voltage level
on the control grid.
 Electron Gun
 A smaller negative voltage
on the control grid simply
decrease the number of
electrons passing through.
 Deflection Systems
 Horizontal deflection is
accomplished with one pair of
coils, and vertical deflection by
the other pairs.
 The proper deflection amounts are
attained by adjusting the current
through the coil.
 Deflection Systems
 Electrostatic deflection:
Two pairs of parallel
plates are mounted inside
the CRT envelope.
 Deflection Systems
 One pair of plates is mounted horizontally to
control the vertical deflection, and the other
pair is mounted vertically to control horizontal
deflection.
 Persistence
 Persistence :The time it
takes the emitted light from
the screen to decay to one-
tenth of its original intensity.
 Resolution (Spots of Light)

 Resolution: The maximum

number of points that can be
displayed without overlap on
a CRT.

Overlap
 Resolution (Spots of Light)

 Resolution of a CRT is dependent on:

 The type of phosphor
 The intensity to be displayed
 The focusing and deflection
systems.
Typical resolution: 1280 by 1024
 Aspect Ratio

 Aspect Ratio: This numbers

gives the ratio of vertical points to
horizontal points necessary to
produce equal length lines in both
directions on the screen.
 Number of Aspect
Resolution
pixels Ratio
Aspect ratio of the
image is the ratio of 320 * 200 64,000 8:5
the number of X pixels
to the number of Y 640 * 480 307,200 4:3
pixels.
800 * 600 480,000 4:3

The standard aspect

1024 * 768 786,432 4:3
ratio for a PC is 4:3
1280 *
1,310,720 5:4
1024

1600 *
1,920,000 4:3
1200
 Refreshing : When dot of
phosphor is struck by an
electron beam it glows for
some time and then fades
away (persistence) In order
to maintain a stable image
the electron beam has to
redraw the image number
of times per second. This is
refreshing. Normally in a
CRT the screen is refreshed Refresh Rates at
60 to 80 frames per second. different Resolutions
Raster Scan Displays
 Raster Scan Displays
 Raster: A rectangular array of
points or dots
 Pixel: One dot or picture element
of the raster
 Scan Line: A row of pixels
 Raster Scan Displays
 In a raster scan system, the electron
beam is swept across the screen, one
row at a time from top to bottom.
 Raster Scan Displays
 As the electron beam moves
across each row, the beam
intensity is turned on and off
to create a pattern of
illuminated spots.
 Raster Scan Displays
 Refresh buffer or frame
buffer: This memory area
holds the set of intensity
values for all the screen
points.
 Raster Scan Displays
 Stored intensity values then retrieved from
refresh buffer and “painted” on the screen
one row (scan line) at a time.
 Raster Scan Displays
 Intensity range for pixel positions
depends on the capability of the
raster system.
 A black-and-white system: each
screen point is either on or off, so
only one bit per pixel is needed to
control the intensity of screen
positions.
 Raster Scan Displays
 On a black-and-white system
with one bit per pixel, the frame
buffer is called bitmap.
 For system with multiple bits per
pixel, the frame buffer is called
pixmap.
 Raster Scan Displays
 Sometimes, refresh rates
are described in unit of
cycles per second, or Hertz
(HZ)
 Raster Scan Displays
 Refreshing on raster scan
displays is carried out at
the rate 60 to 80 frame per
second.
 Raster Scan Displays
 Horizontal retrace: The return
to the left of the screen, after
refreshing each scan line.
 Raster Scan Displays
 Vertical retrace: At the end of each frame
(displayed in 1/80th to 1/60th of a second) the
electron beam returns to the top left corner of
the screen to begin the next frame.
 Q. Consider two raster systems with the resolutions of 640
x 480 and 1280 x 1024.

a) How many pixels could be accessed per second in each of

these systems if the refresh rate of the screen at a rate of 60 frames
per second?

Ans.
Since 60 frames are refreshed per second and each frame
consists of 640 x 480 pixels, the access rate of such a
system is (640 x 480) * 60 = 1.8432 x 107 pixels/second.

Likewise, for the 1280 x 1024 system, the access rate is

(1280 x 1024) * 60 = 7.86432 x 107 pixels/second.
 b) What is the access time per pixel in each system?

Ans. According to the definition of access rate, we know that

the access time per pixel = 1/(access rate).
1/640*480*60= 54 nanoseconds

the access time per pixel = 1/(access rate).

1/1280*1024*60= 12.7 nanoseconds

Therefore, the access time is around 54 nanoseconds/pixel for

the 640 x 480 system, and the access time is around 12.7
nanoseconds/pixel for the 1280×1024 system.
Q. Suppose a raster system is to be designed using on 8 inch
X 10 inch screen with a resolution of 100 pixels per inch in
each direction. If we want to store 6 bits per pixel in the frame
buffer, how much storage (in bytes) do we need for frame
buffer?

Ans. Here, resolution = 8 inch X 10 inch First, we convert it in pixel then

Now resolution = 8 X 100 by 10 X 100 pixel = 800 X 1000 pixel ,

1 pixel can store 6 bits

So, frame buffer size required = 800 X 1000 X 6 bits
=800 * 1000 * 6/ 8 = 6 * 10 5 bytes
Q. How much time is required for scanning across each row of
pixels during screen refresh on a raster system with resolution
of 1280 X 1024 and a refresh rate of 60 frames per second?

Ans: Here, resolution = 1280 X 1024

That means system contains 1024 scan lines and each scan line contains
1280 pixels , refresh rate = 60 frame/sec.

So, 1 frame takes = 1/60 sec.

Since resolution = 1280 X 1024 , 1 frame buffer consist of 1024 scan lines
It means then 1024 scan lines takes 1/60 sec
Therefore, 1 scan line takes ,

1/1024 * 60 = 0.058sec
Q. What is the refresh rate in the 512 x 512 raster system if
pixels are accessed at the rate of 200 nanoseconds?

Ans:
For particular access of pixels rate is 200x10-9 seconds
Total number of pixels in raster system = 512 * 512 .
Time required to access those pixels = 512 * 512 * 200 * 10-9

= 0.0524 seconds
Refresh rate per second = 1/ total time
= 1/0.0524
=19.083 frames/second
=19 frames/second
 Flickering and Interlacing Scan
A flicker is the appearance of flashing or unsteadiness in an
image on a display screen.

This issue can occur when the refresh rate is too low, other
video related issues, and in some cases hardware issues with
the monitor.

Commonly, when this issue occurs, users will experience

more eyestrain.
 Interlacing scan
Interlacing is a technique of improving the picture quality of a
video signal without consuming extra bandwidth.

In this technique, each frame is displayed in the passes, In the first

pass, the beam sweeps across every other scan line from top to
bottom.

In the second pass, the beam sweeps out the remaining scan lines.

 To reduce flicker, divide frame into two fields—one

consisting of the even scan lines and the other of the odd
scan lines.
 Even and odd fields are scanned out alternately to produce
an interlaced image
 Interlacing
 On some raster systems (TV), each frame is
displays in two passes using an interlaced
refresh procedure.
Random Scan
Displays
 Random Scan Displays

 Random scan display is the use of geometrical

primitives such as points, lines, curves, and
polygons, which are all based upon mathematical
equation.
 Raster Scan is the representation of images as a
collection of pixels (dots)
 Random Scan Displays
 Random scan display, a CRT has the
electron beam directed only to the parts
of the screen where a picture is to be
drawn.
 Random scan monitors draw a picture
one line at a time (Vector display,
Stroke–writing or calligraphic
displays).
 Random Scan Displays
 The component lines of a picture
can be drawn and refreshed.
 Random Scan Displays
 Refresh rate depends on the number of lines
to be displayed.

 Picture definition is now stored as a line-

drawing commands an area of memory
referred to as refresh display file (display
list).
 Random Scan Displays
 To display a picture, the system
cycle through the set of
commands in the display file,
drawing each component line in
turn.
 Basic working of random scan display

Random scan monitors are used to draw a picture in one line

at a time and are thus also referred to as vector displays.

The cathode ray tube when operates as a random scan display

device directs the beam of an electron only to those areas of
the screen where display or a picture has to be drawn.

To draw a picture or display it on the screen the system goes

through a line or set of commands and draws each of them
one at a time in a line turn by turn.
Random Scan Display
 Base of
Random Scan Raster Scan
Difference

The resolution of random scan is higher than raster While the resolution of raster scan is
Resolution
scan. lesser or lower than random scan.

It is costlier than raster scan because it requires

While the cost of raster scan is lesser
Cost more sophisticated hardware to control the electron
than random scan.
beam directly

In random scan, any alteration is easy in comparison While in raster scan, any alteration is
Modification
of raster scan. not so easy .

While in raster scan, interlacing is

Interlacing In random scan, interlacing is not used.
used.

In random scan, mathematical function is used for While in which, for image or picture
Line Drawings image or picture rendering. It is suitable for rendering, raster scan uses pixels. It is
applications requiring polygon drawings. suitable for creating realistic scenes.

Electron Beam is directed to only that part of screen Electron Beam is directed from top to
Motion of Electron
where picture is required to be drawn, one line at a bottom and one row at a time on
Beam
time. screen. It is directed to whole screen.

It stores picture definition as a set of

It stores picture definition as a set of line commands
Picture Definition intensity values of the pixels in the
in the Refresh buffer.
frame buffer.

Refresh rate is 60 to 80 frames per

Refresh rate depends on the number of lines to be
Refresh Rate second and is independent of picture
displayed i.e. 30 to 60 times per second.
complexity.

In raster scan, Solid Pattern is easy to

Solid Pattern In random scan, Solid Pattern is tough to fill.
fill.
Example Pen Plotter TV Sets
 Look-Up
Table:

 Image representation is essentially the description of pixel colors.

 There are three primary colors: R (red), G (green) and B (blue).
 Each primary color can take on intensity levels produces a variety of colors.
 We may allocate 3 bits for each pixel, with one bit for each primary color.
 The 3-bit representation allows each primary to vary independently between two
intensity levels: 0 (off) or 1 (on).
 Hence each pixel can take on one of the eight colors.
 Bit 1:r Bit 2:g Bit 3:b Color name
0 0 0 Black
0 0 1 Blue
0 1 0 Green
0 1 1 Cyan
1 0 0 Red
1 0 1 Magenta
1 1 0 Yellow
1 1 1 White

A widely accepted industry standard uses 3 bytes, or 24 bytes, per pixel, with
one byte for each primary color.

The way, we allow each primary color to have 256 different intensity levels.

Thus a pixel can take on a color from 256 x 256 x 256 or 16.7 million possible
choices.
The 24-bit format is commonly referred to as the actual color representation.
 Example Scenario: Grayscale Image with a 1D LUT

Let’s say we have a grayscale image (black and white) where each pixel has a
value ranging from 0 to 255, representing shades of gray from black (0) to white
(255). We want to apply a 1D LUT to modify the brightness and contrast of this
image.
Step 1: Original Grayscale Image
The pixel values in a typical 8-bit grayscale image might look like this:

Pixel Position Value (Pixel)

(0,0) 100
(1,0) 150
(2,0) 200
(3,0) 50

Here, the pixel values range from 0 (black) to 255 (white), and each pixel
has a value representing a specific shade of gray.
Step 2: Define a 1D LUT
create a simple 1D LUT that modifies the pixel values to increase the brightness.
This LUT will map the original values to new values that are brighter.

For example, we define a LUT where each input value (0-255) is increased by a
constant amount, say 50. But if the new value exceeds 255, we clamp it to 255
(since pixel values can’t go above 255).

LUT (simplified) for Brightening:

Input Value Output
(Original) Value (LUT)
0 50
50 100
100 150
150 200
200 250
250 300
Step 3: Apply the LUT to the Image
Take the pixel values from the image and use the LUT to look up the
corresponding new values:
For pixel (0,0) with value 100: According to the LUT, 100 gets mapped to 150.
For pixel (1,0) with value 150: According to the LUT, 150 gets mapped to 200.
For pixel (2,0) with value 200: According to the LUT, 200 gets mapped to 250.
For pixel (3,0) with value 50: According to the LUT, 50 gets mapped to 100.
Step 4: Resulting Image
After applying the LUT, the new pixel values in the image will be:

Pixel Position Original Value LUT Output

Value
(0,0) 100 150
(1,0) 150 200
(2,0) 200 250
(3,0) 50 100

The new image now appears brighter because each pixel’s value has been
increased according to the LUT.
In computer graphics, a Color Lookup Table (CLUT) is a mechanism for
mapping or converting one set of colors to another.

It's essentially a table that stores a mapping of input values (like pixel values) to
output colors.

When an image or scene uses a CLUT, each pixel value in the image can be
quickly mapped to a corresponding color in the table.

Purpose of a CLUT:
Color Mapping: A CLUT allows you to map an input color index (or value) to a
different output color. This is particularly useful for operations like color
correction, color grading, or effects in real-time rendering.
Efficient Use of Memory: Instead of storing full color values for every pixel, a
CLUT can reduce the memory usage by storing smaller indices and only
mapping them to colors when needed.
Image Processing: In some cases, a CLUT can be used to adjust colors for visual
effects or enhancements, such as applying a vintage filter or changing the tone of
an image.
In computer graphics, color depth (or bit depth) refers to the number of bits used to
represent the color of a single pixel. It determines how many distinct colors can be
displayed or stored in an image, and is a crucial factor in determining the image's quality
and file size.

What is Color Depth?

Color depth refers to the number of bits used to describe the color of a pixel. The more bits,
the more colors can be represented, which translates to richer and more detailed images.
Common Color Depths:
1-bit Color Depth (Monochrome):
Each pixel can be either black or white (2 possible colors).
Example: Simple graphics like old text-based interfaces or early black-and-white
monitors.
Formula for possible colors: 2^1 = 2 colors.

8-bit Color Depth:

Common for grayscale images or indexed color images, where there are 256 possible colors.
Example: Early web graphics or simple icons.
Formula for possible colors: 2^8 = 256 colors.
In a grayscale image, 256 shades of gray are possible, and in an indexed color image, only 256
colors from a predefined LUT can be used.
 Summary of Color Depths:

Bits per Pixel

Color Depth Number of Colors Example Use
(bpp)
Black & White
1-bit 2 1
images
Simple graphics,
8-bit 256 8
GIFs
Older games,
16-bit 65,536 16 some image
formats
Digital images,
24-bit 16.7 million 24
web graphics

PNG images with

16.7 million +
32-bit 32 transparency,
alpha
graphics software