Operating System

Linux

1
 Features of modern OS
 To facilitate easy,
efficient, fair, orderly,
and secure use of
resources
– Provide a user
interface
– Organize files on disk
– Allocating resource to
different users with
security control
– Co-ordinate programs
to work with devices
and other programs

2
 Linux
Development of Linux

3
  Before Linux
– In 80’s, Microsoft’s DOS was the dominated OS for PC
– single-user, single-process system
– Apple MAC is better, but expensive
– UNIX is much better, but much much expensive. Only for
minicomputer for commercial applications
– People was looking for a UNIX based system, which is
cheaper and can run on PC
– Both DOS, MAC and UNIX are proprietary, i.e., the source
code of their kernel is protected
– No modification is possible without paying high license
fees

4
  GNU project
– Established in 1984 by Richard Stallman, who believes that
software should be free from restrictions against copying or
modification in order to make better and efficient computer
programs
– GNU is a recursive acronym for “GNU's Not Unix”
– Aim at developing a complete Unix-like operating system which
is free for copying and modification
– Companies make their money by maintaining and distributing
the software, e.g. optimally packaging the software with different
tools (Redhat, Slackware, Mandrake, SuSE, etc)
– Stallman built the first free GNU C Compiler in 1991. But still, an
OS was yet to be developed

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  Beginning of Linux
– A famous professor Andrew Tanenbaum developed
Minix, a simplified version of UNIX that runs on PC
– Minix is for class teaching only. No intention for
commercial use
– In Sept 1991, Linus Torvalds, a second year student
of Computer Science at the University of Helsinki,
developed the preliminary kernel of Linux, known as
Linux version 0.0.1
– It was put to the Internet and received
enormous response from worldwide
software developers
– By December came version 0.10. Still
6 Linux was little more than in skeletal form.
  Confrontation and Development
– Message from Professor Andrew Tanenbaum
– " I still maintain the point that designing a monolithic kernel in 1991 is a
fundamental error. Be thankful you are not my
student. You would not get a high grade for such a design :-)"
(Andrew Tanenbaum to Linus Torvalds)
– "Linux is obsolete".
(Remark made by Andrew Tanenbaum)
– But work went on. Soon more than a hundred people joined the Linux
camp. Then thousands. Then hundreds of thousands
– It was licensed under GNU General Public License, thus ensuring
that the source codes will be free for all to copy, study and to change.

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  Linux Today
– Linux has been used for many computing platforms
– PC, PDA, Supercomputer,…
– Current kernel version 2.6.13
– Not only character user interface but graphical user interface, thanks to
the X-Window technology
– Commercial vendors moved in Linux itself to provide freely distributed
code. They make their money by compiling up various software and
gathering them in a distributable format
– Red Hat, Slackware, etc
– Chinese distribution of Linux also appeared in Taiwan and China - CLE,
Red Flag Linux

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 Linux Pros and Cons
 Advantages over Windows
– It's almost free to relatively inexpensive
– Source code is included
– Bugs are fixed quickly and help is readily available through the vast
support in Internet
– Linux is more stable than Windows
– Linux is truly multi-user and multi-tasking
– multiuser: OS that can simultaneously serve a number of users
– multitasking: OS that can simultaneously execute a number of programs
– Linux runs on equipment that other operating systems consider too
underpowered, e.g. 386 systems, PDA, etc

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 Linux Pros and Cons (Cont)
 Disadvantages compared with Windows
– Isn't as popular as Windows
– No one commercial company is responsible for Linux
– Linux is relatively hard to install, learn and use

 Hence currently, Linux is mainly used in

commercial applications, server implementation
 More than 75% current network servers are
developed based on Linux or Unix systems
– Due to the relatively high reliability
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 Linux
Linux System Architecture

11
 Applications: Compilers, word processors, X-based GUI
AUI
LINUX Shell: Bourne Again (bash), TC, Z, etc.
Language libraries
API System call interface

Memory File Process

Kernel management management Management
Device Drives
BIOS
Computer Hardware

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  Kernel
– The part of an OS where the real work is done
 System call interface
– Comprise a set of functions (often known as Application
Progarmmer’s Interface API) that can be used by the applications and
library routines to use the services provided by the kernel

 Application User’s Interface

– Interface between the kernel and user
– Allow user to make commands to the system
– Divided into text based and graphical based

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  File Management
– Control the creation, removal of files and provide directory
maintenance
– For a multiuser system, every user should have its own right to
access files and directories
 Process Management
– For a multitask system, multiple programs can be executed simultaneously in the
system
– When a program starts to execute, it becomes a process
– The same program executing at two different times will become two different
processes
– Kernel manages processes in terms of creating, suspending, and terminating them
– A process is protected from other processes and can communicate with the others

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  Memory management
– Memory in a computer is divided into main memory
(RAM) and secondary storage (usually refer to hard disk)
– Memory is small in capacity but fast in speed, and hard
disk is vice versa
– Data that are not currently used should be saved to hard
disk first, while data that are urgently needed should be
retrieved and stored in RAM
– The mechanism is referred as memory management
 Device drivers
– Interfaces between the kernel and the BIOS
– Different device has different driver
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 Linux
User interface

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 Linux User Login
 Linux is a multiuser OS
 Allow multiple users to use the resource of a computer at
the same time
 Every user needs to login the system with the password
provided to identify their right in using the resource
 Require for both client-server based system or desktop

Linux Paul
Server Peter Mary
Peter: admin
Paul : general
Mary : intruder Client-server based
: system
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 Linux User Interface
 Traditional Linux (Unix also) uses command-
driven interface (or text-based interface)
– User needs to type lines of command to instruct the
computer to work, similar to DOS
– Advantage: fast in speed. Very few resource is
required for its implementation
– Disadvantages: user needs to type, hence can
easily make error. Besides, user needs to memorize
all commands
– Suitable for expert users and for the systems that
interaction with user is not frequent, such as servers
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  By adopting the X-Window technology, graphical user interface
(GUI) is available for Linux:
– Uses pointing devices (e.g. mouse) to control the system,
similar to Microsoft’s Windows
– Provide menu-driven and/or icon-driven interfaces
– menu-driven: user is provided with a menu of choices.
Each choice refers to a particular task
– icon-driven: tasks are represented by pictures (icon) and
shown to user. Click on an icon invokes one task
– Advantages: No need to memorize commands. Always
select task from menus or icons
– Disadvantages: Slow and require certain resource for its
implementation
– Suitable for general users and systems, such as PC

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 •• A typical Linux GUI based on
A typical Linux GUI based on
GNOME
GNOME
•• Similar to Microsoft’s Windows,
Similar to Microsoft’s Windows,
however,
however,different
differentwindow
windowsystems
systemscancan
be
bechosen
chosen(e.g.
(e.g.GNOME,
GNOME,KDE,
KDE,etc)
etc)
20
 Linux
Linuxtext-based
text-basedinterface
interface

command to show the

content of current directory

The prompt $ shows

that bash shell is using

command to show the

content of current directory
21 with option -al
 whoami
Linux Shell ls pwd
 Shell interprets the command Bash, Tcsh, Zsh
and request service from
kernel
Kernel
 Similar to DOS but DOS has
only one set of interface while
Linux can select different shell
– Bourne Again shell (Bash), TC
shell (Tcsh), Z shell (Zsh)
 Different shell has similar but different functionality
 Bash is the default for Linux
 Graphical user interface of Linux is in fact an application
program work on the shell
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  Frequently used commands available in most shells:
– ls : to show (list) the names of the file in the current directory
– cd : change directory,
– e.g. cd / change to the root directory
cd .. change to the parent of that directory
– cp : copy one file to another
– e.g. cp abc.txt xyz.txt copy abc.txt to xyz.txt
– rm : remove a file
– man : ask for the manual (or help) of a command
– e.g. man cd ask for the manual of the command cd
– pwd : show the name of the present working directory
– cat : to show the content of a text file
– e.g. cat abc.txt show the content of abc.txt
– whoami : to show the username of the current user

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 Linux
File management

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 Linux File Management
 InLinux, file is defined as simply the thing that
deals with a sequence of bytes
 Hence everything are files
– An ordinary file is a file; a directory is also file; a network
card, a hard disk, any device are also files since they
deal with a sequence of bytes
 Linux supports five types of files
– simple/ordinary file (text file, c++ file, etc)
– directory
– symbolic (soft) link
– special file (device)
– named pipe (FIFO)
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 The concept of simple file and
directory is similar to DOS

Names in blue are directories, indicated

26 by a letter d at the beginning of the line
  Symbolic (soft) link
– Not a real file, just a link to another file
– Allow giving another name to a file without actually
duplicates it – hence save memory space
 Special file (device)
– Each hardware device, e.g. keyboard, hard disk, CD-
ROM, etc is associated with at least one file
– Usually store in /dev directory
– Applications can read and write any devices by reading
and writing their associate file – hence the access
method is known as device independent
– Divide into two types: character special files, e.g.
keyboard, and block special files, e.g. disk

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 ENG224
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY – Part I
2. Operating System Case Study: Linux
Command that sets a
symbolic link to a file
called CUI to anotherCUI

File size is only 6 bytes

A symbolic link begins with a letter l

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 Some of the special device files in /dev
Some are fd0 – floppy disk
character md0 – CD-Rom
devices, hence Both of them are block devices, hence
start with a start with a letter b
letter c
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 Linux File System Structure
 According to the File System Standard (FSSTND) proposed
in 1994, every LINUX system should contain a set of
standard files and directories

root / directories

bin lib lost+found mnt opt root sbin var

boot dev etc proc home tmp usr

file
… dlun guest bin lib local
fd hd hd group passwd
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  Root Directory ( / )
– Top of the file system. Similar to \ in DOS
 /bin
– Contain the binary (executable code) of most essential
Linux commands, e.g. bash, cat, cp, ln, ls, etc.
 /boot
– Contain all the files needed to boot the Linux system,
including the binary of the Linux kernel. E.g., on Red
Hat Linux 6.1, the kernel is in /boot/vmlinux-2.2.5-15 file
 /dev
– Contain the special files for devices, e.g. fd0, hd0, etc.

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  /etc
– Contain host-specific files and directories, e.g.
information about system configuration
– /etc/passwd
– This file contains login information of users in the
system
– For every user, one line of record is stored in the
following format:

login_name : dummy_or_encrypted_password : user_ID :

group_ID : user_info : home_directory : login_shell

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  E.g. davis:x:134:105:James A Davis:/home/davis:/bin/bash
– davis : login name
– x : means that it is a dummy password. The encrypted password
is stored in /etc/shadow. This field can also be used to store the
actual encrypted password. In any case, the original
(unencrypted) password cannot be seen by anyone, including
the administrator
– 134 : a user id given to that user. Range from 0 to 65535. 0 is
assigned to super-user. 1 to 99 are reserved
– 105 : a group id given to that user to indicate which group he
belongs to. Range from 0 to 65535. 0 to 99 reserved
– James A Davis : user info, usually user’s full name
– /home/davis : home directory of the user
– /bin/bash : the location of the shell the user is using

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  /home
– Contain the home directories of every user in the
system, e.g. dlun, guest, etc
 /lib
– Store all essential libraries for different language
compilers
 /lost+found
– Contain all the files on the system not connected to
any directory.
– System administrator should determine the fate of
the files in this directory

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  /mnt
– Use by system administrator to mount file systems
temporarily by using the mount command
– Before using any devices, they have to be mounted to the
system for registration
– For example, after mounting a CD-ROM, the file system in
it will be mapped to /mnt/cdrom directory
– User can then read and write files in the CD-ROM by
accessing this directory
– Similar to mapping a drive letter to a CD-ROM in Windows
– Different from the special file in /dev. Special file is only a
place where data of the CD-ROM is transferred or stored.
No file system concept

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  /opt
– Use to install add-on software packages, e.g. star office,
etc.
 /proc
– Contain process and system information
 /root
– Home directory of the user root, usually the administrator
 /sbin
– The directories /sbin, /usr/sbin, and /usr/local/sbin
contain system administration tools, utilities and general
root only commands, such as halt, reboot and shutdown

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  /tmp
– Contain temporary files. Usually files in this directory will
be deleted from time to time to avoid the system fills with
temp files
 /usr
– One of the largest sections of the Linux file system
– Contain read-only data that are shared between various
users, e.g. the manual pages needed for the command
man. Stored in /usr/man direcrtory
 /var
– Contain data that keeps on changing as the system is
running. E.g. /var/spool/mail directory keeps the mail of
user

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 Linux File Access Privilege
 Linux is a multiuser system, the files of all users
are stored in a single file structure
 Mechanism is required to restrict one user to
access the files of another user, if he is not
supposed to
 User can impose access permission to each file to
restrict its access
 The term “access permission” refers to
– read permission
– write permission
– execute permission
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 ENG224
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY – Part I
2. Operating System Case Study: Linux

The file access permission can be seen

by using the command ls –l or ls -al

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 File last
Hard Owner Owner’s modified date
link no group

d rwx r-x r-x 2 dlun dlun 4096 May 17 2019 Autostart

It is a file size file name

directory
The directory The directory can be The directory can be
can be read, read and executed read and executed but
written and but not written by not written by other
executed by the other users in the users in different
user dlun same group of dlun group of dlun

The group of a user is assigned by the administrator when a

40 user is added to the system
  Access permission can also be assigned to a directory
 Directory is also a file that contains the attributes of the
files inside it
 If read permission is not given to a directory
– cannot show the structure of this directory
– e.g. cannot use ls
 If write permission is not given to a directory
– cannot modify anything of the directory structure
– e.g. cannot copy a file into this directory since it will modify the
directory structure by adding one more file
 If execute permission is not given to a directory
– nearly nothing can be done with this directory, even cd

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  The access permission of a file or directory can
be changed by using the command

chmod xyz filename/directory name

 xyz refers 3 digit in octal form
 E.g.

660 : 110 110 000

 rw- rw- ---
545 : 101 100 101
 r-x r-- r-x

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 temp does not have execution right

even cd is not workable

execution right is added

now we can change the directory to temp

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 File Storage in Linux
 Data storage on hard disk
– Data in a hard disk are stored on a magnetic flat plate
– Disk’s surface needs to be partitioned and labeled so that
computer can go directly to a specific point on it
– Achieve by low level formatting the disk
 Create magnetic concentric circles called tracks
 Each track is split into smaller parts called sectors and numbered

 Each sector: hold 512 bytes data

 E.g. 80 tracks (from outer to inner 0 .. 79), 18 sectors disk can store
80x18x512 bytes data.

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 Formatted Disk
Sector Density of data is
Track higher for inner tracks
than outer tracks

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  Must read or write whole sector at a time
 OS allocates groups of sectors called cluster to files
 Files smaller than the cluster will still be allocated the whole
cluster, but the rest left unused
 In Linux, every file is associated with an inode that records its
location in the disk
 The inode of all files are put together in a data structure called
inode table
 In the directory, every file is associated with a inode number that
points to an entry of the inode table

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 Contents of the directory /home/dlun
1076 …
2083 …
13059 lab1.c
17488 lab2.c
18995 lab3.c

Number of links
Lab3.c
: File mode Lab2.c
User ID
Time created Lab1.c
Time last updated
: :
Location on disk
47
 Linux
Process management

48
 Linux Process Management
 Linux is a multitasking system
 Multiple programs can be executed at the same time
 Ultimately, a program needs to be executed by a CPU
 If there is only one CPU, how multiple programs can
be executed at the same time?
 By time sharing
 That is, all programs are claimed to be executing. In
fact, most of them are waiting for the CPU

49
 A program that is claimed to be executing is
called a process
 For a multitasking system, a process has at least
the following three states:

Start Finish
execution Ready Running
execution

Sleeping

50
  Ready state
– All processes that are ready to execute but without the CPU are at the
ready state
– If there is only 1 CPU in the system, all processes except one are at the
ready state
 Running state
– The process that actually possesses the CPU is at the running state
– If there is only 1 CPU in the system, at most there is only one process is at
the running state
 Sleeping state
– The process that is waiting for other resources, e.g. I/O, is at the sleeping
state

51
  Processes will alternatively get into the CPU one after the other (called the round
robin scheme)
 A process will be “in” a CPU for a very short time (quantum)
– For Linux, each quantum is about 100msec
 At the time that a process is selected to be “in” the CPU
– It goes from ready state to running state
 After that, it will be swapped out
– It goes from running state back to ready state
 Or it may due to the waiting of an I/O device, e.g. mouse
– It goes from running state to sleeping state
 When obtaining the required resource
– It goes from sleeping state to ready state

52
 ready C A B C A B
B A B A B C A B C A C A B A

running A B A B A B C A B C A C A B
Time
C Executes
B Sleeps
B Awakes
C Terminates

B B
sleep

53
  The mechanism to determine which process should “get
into” the CPU is called Process scheduling
 For example,
Program A Actual sequence of operations
a ->10
Set variable a to 10
b ->0
Set variable b to 0 c ->a+b
b ->c
Repeat 5 times the following
c ->a+b
{ b ->c
c ->a+b
Set variable c to a+b
b ->c
Set variable b to c c ->a+b
b ->c
} c ->a+b
Print out the value of b b ->c
54 Print out b
 Actual sequence of operations
d ->0
Program B User ->e
f ->d+e
Set variable d to 0 d ->f
Repeat 5 times the following User ->e
f ->d+e
{ d ->f
User ->e
Ask user to enter variable e
f ->d+e
Set variable f =d+e d ->f
User ->e
Set variable d =f f ->d+e
} d ->f
User ->e
Print out the value of d f ->d+e
d ->f
Print out d
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  Program A and B will be at the running state
alternatively, depends on the quantum size and the
availability of the required resource
a ->10 c ->a+b
b ->0 Program b ->c
c ->a+b A Print out b
b ->c f ->d+e
Quantum c ->a+b
finishes d ->f
end d ->0 User ->e
Waiting for User ->e f ->d+e
b ->c d ->f
user input c ->a+b User ->e
b ->c f ->d+e
c ->a+b d ->f
Quantum b ->c User ->e
end f ->d+e
Program f ->d+e
d ->f B d ->f
Waiting for
56
User ->e finishes Print out d
user input
 Terminal pts/0 has the editor vi
running

Terminal pts/1 is
executing ps to see
the processes of both
terminals

The processes of a system can

be seen by using the command
ps
57
 PID TTY STAT TIME COMMAND
14748 pts/1 S 0:00 –bash
14795 pts/0 S 0:00 –bash
14974 pts/0 S 0:00 vi test1.txt
14876 pts/1 R 0:00 ps …

How much time the

process is continuously
State: executing
Process ID Terminal
S – Sleeping
name
(waiting for input)
R – Running
58
  For the example above, both bash processes, which
are the shell of both terminals, are waiting for the
input of user. They must be in the sleeping state
 The vi process, which is an editor, is also waiting for
the input of user. Hence it is also in sleeping state
 When ps reporting the processes in the system, it is
the only process that is running. Hence it is in
running state

59
 A process can be forced to terminate by using
the command kill -9 PID

The vi process is terminated by using the command

60 kill -9 14874