Chapter #1

AN OVERVIEW OF MICROPROCESSORS
AND ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE
PROGRAMMING.
 Chapter One
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the course, student should be:
a) Able to understand the basic operation of
microprocessor.
b) Able to understand the basic concept of
microprocessor architecture and its pins
configuration.
c) Able to understand the machine language
programs.
d) Able to design and write programs in assembly
language.
e) Able to understand the basic concept of
microprocessor input/output interfacing
What is Microprocessor?
The term ‘micro’ means extremely small and
‘processor’ means the thing that accelerates tasks.
So in general sense the term ‘microprocessor’ means
an extremely small thing that can accelerate different
tasks as ordered. But the actual definition of
microprocessor is slightly different than this.
A microprocessor is a tiny electronic chip containing
transistors found inside a computer’s central
processing unit and other electronic devices. Its basic
function is to take input, process it and then provide
appropriate output.
The microprocessor is a general-purpose
programmable logic device.
Understanding the microprocessor concepts is crucial
in understanding the operation of digital computer.
The content of the course is divided into three
sections:
–microprocessor architecture,
–programming and
–interfacing input/output.
The microprocessor itself is usually a single integrated
circuit (IC).
Most microprocessors (MPU), or very small computers,
have much the same commands or instructions that
they can perform.
–They vary mostly in the names used to describe each
command.
In a typical MPU, there are commands to move data
around, do simple math (add, subtract, multiply, and
divide), bring data into the micro from the outside world,
and send data out of the micro to the outside world.
The microprocessor is a programmable integrated device that has
computing and decision-making capability similar to that of the
central processing unit (CPU) of a computer.
The fact that the microprocessor is programmable means it can
be instructed to perform given tasks within its capability.
The microprocessor is a clock-driven semiconductor device
consisting of electronic logic circuits manufactured by using either
a large-scale integration (LSI) or very-large-scale integration (VLSI)
technique.
A typical MPU has three basic parts inside. They are:
–the Program Counter (PC)
–Memory, and
–Input / Output (I/O).
The Program Counter keeps track of which command is to be
executed.
The Memory contains the commands to be executed.
The Input / Output handles the transfer of data to and from the
outside world (outside the MPU physical package).
There are many other actual parts inside the MPU,
Nowadays, the microprocessor is being used in a
wide range of products called microprocessor-based
products or systems.
The microprocessor can he embedded in a larger
system, can be a stand alone unit controlling
processes, or it can function as the CPU of a computer
called a microcomputer.
The microprocessor communicates and operates in
the binary numbers 0 and 1, called bits.
Each microprocessor has a fixed set of instructions in
the form of binary patterns called a machine language.
It is difficult for humans to communicate in the
language of 0 s and 1 s.
Therefore, the binary instructions are given
abbreviated names, called mnenomics, which form the
assembly language for a given microprocessor.
A typical programmable machine can be represented with
four components: microprocessor, memory, input, and
output.
These four components work together or interact with each other
to perform a given task; thus, they comprise a system.
The physical components of this system are called hardware.
A set of instructions written for the microprocessor to perform a
task is called a program, and a group of programs is called
software.
The microprocessor applications are classified primarily in
two categories:
–reprogrammable systems and
–embedded systems.
In reprogrammable systems, such as microcomputers, the
microprocessor is used for computing and data processing. These
systems include:
–general-purpose microprocessors capable of handling large data,
mass storage devices (such as disks and CD-ROMs), and
peripherals such as printers; –a personal computer (PC) is a typical
illustration.
In embedded systems, the microprocessor is a part of a final
product and is not available for reprogramming to the end user.
Example:
–copying machine
–washing machine.
–Air-conditioner
–Etc.
Microprocessor, CPU & Microcontroller
Microprocessor (MPU) -a semiconductor device (integrated
circuit) manufactured by using the LSI technique.
It includes the ALU, register arrays, and control circuits on a
single chip.
CPU -the central processing unit.
–The group of circuits that processes data and provides control
signals and timing. It includes the arithmetic/logic unit,
registers, instruction decoder, and the control unit.
Microcontroller -a device that includes microprocessor,
memory, and I/O signal lines on a single chip, fabricated using
VLSI technology.
In large computers, a CPU implemented on one or
more circuit boards performs these computing
functions.
The microprocessor is in many ways similar to the
CPU, but includes all the logic circuitry, including the
control unit, on one chip.

Traditional block diagram of a computer

 Instruction cycle in CPU
I. Read an Instruction
II. Decode the instruction
III. Find the address of operand
IV. Retrieve an operand
V. Perform desired operation
VI. Find the address of destination
VII.Store the result into the destination.
Block diagram of a computer with the
microprocessor as a CPU
Block diagram of a microcontroller
 Applications of Microcontrollers
Microcontrollers are widely used in various different
devices such as −
i. Light sensing and controlling devices like LED.
ii. Temperature sensing and controlling devices like
microwave oven, chimneys.
iii. Fire detection and safety devices like Fire alarm.
iv. Measuring devices like Volt Meter.
 Difference between Microprocessor and
Microcontroller
Microcontroller Microprocessor
Microcontrollers are Microprocessors are used
used to execute a single for big applications.
task within an
application.
Its designing and Its designing and
hardware cost is low. hardware cost is high.
Easy to replace. Not so easy to replace.
It is built with CMOS Its power consumption is
technology, which high because it has to
requires less power to control the entire system.
operate.
It consists of CPU, RAM, It doesn’t consist of RAM,
ROM, I/O ports. ROM, I/O ports. It uses its
A Simple Program
 A program is a sequence or series of very simple
commands or instructions.
 A real world example program might be the problem of
crossing a busy street.
–Step 1: Walk up to the traffic lights and stop.
–Step 2: Look at the traffic light.
–Step 3: Is your light green?
–Step 4: If the light is red, goto step 2. (otherwise continue to
step 5)
–Step 5: Look to the left.
–Step 6: Are there cars still passing by?
–Step 7: If yes, goto step 5. (otherwise continue to step 8).
–Step 8: Look to the right.
–Step 9: Are there cars still passing by? (there shouldn't be
any by now, but, you never know!)
–Step 10: If yes, goto step 8. (otherwise continue to step 11)
–Step 11: Proceed across the street, carefully!! .
Now this may seem childish at first glance, but this is
exactly what you do every time you cross a busy street,
that has a traffic light.
•This is also exactly how you would tell a MPU to cross the
street, if one could.
•This is what I mean by a sequence or series of very
simple steps.
•Taken as a whole, the steps lead you cross a busy
intersection, which, if a computer did it, would seem very
intelligent.
•It is intelligence, people are intelligent. A programmer
that programmed these steps into a MPU, would impart
that intelligence to the micro.
•The MPU would not, however, in this case, know what to
do when it got to the other side, since we didn't tell it.
In a MPU, the problems are different but the logical steps
to solve the problem are similar, that is, a series of very
simple steps, leading to the solution of a larger problem.
Also notice that since the steps are numbered, 1 through 11,
that is the order in which they're executed.
–The Program Counter (PC), in this case, starting with 1 and
ending with 11, doing what each one says.
–The PC automatically advances to the next step, after doing
what the current step says, unless a branch, or jump, is
encountered.
–A branch is an instruction that directs the PC to go to a specific
step, other than the next in the sequence.
The point of this lesson is to show how a simple set of
instructions can solve a bigger problem.
–Taken as a whole, the solution could appear to be more
complicated than any of the separate steps it took to solve it.
•The most difficult problem to be solved in programming a MPU
is to define the problem you are trying to solve.
–Sounds silly but I assure you, it's not.
–This is the Logical Thought Process.
–It is having a good understanding of the problem you're trying
to solve.
Decimal, Binary & Hex
The microprocessor operates in binary digits, 0 and 1, also known as
bits.
–Bit is an abbreviation for the term binary digit.
–These digits are represented in terms of electrical voltages in the
machine: Generally, 0 represents low voltage level, and 1 represents
high voltage level.
•Each MPU recognizes and processes a group of bits called the word.
–A word is a group of bits the computer recognizes and processes at a
time.
•MPUs are classified according to their word length.
–For example, a processor with an 8-bit word is known as an 8-bit
microprocessor, and a processor with a 32-bit word is known as a 32-bit
microprocessor.
All numbering systems follow the same rules.
•Decimal is Base 10, Binary is Base 2, and Hex(adecimal) is Base 16.
•The base of a system refers to how many possible numbers can be in
each digit position.
–In decimal, a single digit number is 0 through 9.
–In binary a single digit number is 0 or 1.
–In hex a single digit number is 0 through 9, A,B,C,D,E, and F.
Advances in Semiconductor Technology
After the invention of the transistor, integrated circuits (ICs)
appeared on the scene at the end of the 1950s.
–an entire circuit consisting of several transistors, diodes, and
resistors could be designed on a single chip.
•In the early 1960s, logic gates 7400 series were commonly
available as ICs, and the technology of integrating the circuits of a
logic gate on a single chip became known as small-scale
integration (SSI).
As semiconductor technology advanced, more than 100 gates
were fabricated on one chip:
–medium-scale integration (MSI).
–Example: a decade counter (7490).
•Within a few years, it was possible to fabricate more than 1000
gates on a single chip
–large-scale integration (LSI).
•Now we are in the era of very-large-scale integration (VLSI) and
super-large-scale integration (SLSI).
•The lines of demarcation between these different scales of
integration are rather ill defined and arbitrary.
The microprocessor revolution began with a bold
and innovative approach in logic design pioneered
by Intel engineer Ted Hoff.
•In 1969, Intel was primarily in the business of
designing semiconductor memory.
–it introduced a 64-hit bipolar RAM chip that year.
Organization of a Microprocessor-Based
System
It includes three components:
–Microprocessor;
–I/O (input/output) and
–memory (read/write memory and read-only
memory).
•These components are organized around a
common communication path called a bus.
•The entire group of components is also referred to
as a system or a microcomputer system.
The functions of various components:
–The microprocessor
•reads instructions from memory.
•communicates with all peripherals (memory and 1/Os) using the
system bus.
•controls the timing of information flow.
•performs the computing tasks specified in a program.
–The memory
•stores binary information, called instructions and data.
•provides the instructions and data to the microprocessor on
request.
•stores results and data for the microprocessor.
–The input device
•enters data and instructions under the control of a program such
as program.
–The output device
•accepts data from the microprocessor as specified in a program.
–The bus
•carries bits between the microprocessor and memory and I/Os.
Microprocessor Instruction Set and Computer Languages
Microprocessors recognize and operate in binary numbers.
•Each microprocessor has its own binary words, meanings, and
language.
•The words are formed by combining a number of bits for a given
machine.
–The word (or word length) is defined as the number of bits the
microprocessor recognizes and processes at a time.
–The word length ranges from 4-bit to 64-bit.
•Another term commonly used to express word length is byte.
–A byte is defined as a group of eight bits.
–For example, a 16-bit microprocessor has a word length to two
bytes.
•The term nibble stands for a group of four bits.
–A byte has two nibbles.

Each machine has its own set of instructions based on the

design of its CPU or of its microprocessor.
•To communicate with the computer, one must give instructions in
binary language (machine language).
–Difficult for most people to write programs in sets of 0s
and 1s, computer manufacturers have devised English-
like words to represent the binary instructions of a
machine -assembly language.
–An assembly language is machine-specific.
Assembler
The hand assembly:
–tedious and subject to errors;
–suited for small programs.
•Alternative, use assembler:
–The assembler is a program that translates the
mnemonics entered by the ASCII keyboard into the
corresponding binary machine codes of the
microprocessor.
–Each microprocessor has its own assembler because the
mnemonics and machine codes are specific to the
microprocessor being used, and each assembler has rules
that must be followed by the programmer.
High-Level Languages
Programming languages that are intended to be
machine-independent are called high-level languages.
•These include such languages as BASIC, PASCAL, C, C+
+ and Java, all of which have certain sets of rules and
draw on symbols and conventions from English.
•Instructions written in these languages are known as
statements rather than mnemonics.
How are words in English converted into the binary
languages of different microprocessors?
–Through another program called either a compiler or an
interpreter.
–These programs accept English-like statements as their
input, called the source code.
–The compiler or interpreter then translates the source
code into the machine language compatible (object code)
with the microprocessor being used in the system.
–Each microprocessor needs its own compiler or an
•Compiler -a program that translates English-like
words of a high-level language into the machine
language of a computer.
–A compiler reads a given program, called a source
code, in its entirety and then translates the program
into the machine language, which is called an object
code.
•Interpreter -a program that translates the
English-like statements of a high-level language into
the machine language of a computer.
–An interpreter translates one statement at a time
from a source code to an object code.
•Assembler -a computer program that translates
an assembly language program from mnemonics to
the binary machine code of a computer.
Operating system -a set of programs that
manages interaction between hardware and
OS and its relationship with various hardware
components
Hierarchical relationship between computer
hardware and software.
 Addressing modes of 8086
The way of specifying data to be operated by an
instruction is known as addressing modes. This
specifies that the given data is an immediate data or
an address. It also specifies whether the given
operand is register or register pair.
Types of addressing modes:
1. Register mode – In this type of addressing
mode both the operands are registers.
Example:
MOV AX, BX
XOR AX, DX
ADD AL, BL
2. Immediate mode – In this type of addressing
mode the source operand is a 8 bit or 16 bit data.
Destination operand can never be immediate data.
MOV AX, 2000
MOV CL, 0A
ADD AL, 45
AND AX, 0000
Note that to initialize the value of segment register
an register is required.
MOV AX, 2000
MOV CS, AX
3. Displacement or direct mode – In this type of
addressing mode the effective address is directly
given in the instruction as displacement.
Example:
MOV AX, [DISP]
MOV AX, [0500]
4. Register indirect mode – In this addressing
mode the effective address is in SI, DI or BX.
Example:
MOV AX, [DI]
ADD AL, [BX]
MOV AX, [SI]
5. Based indexed mode – In this the effective
address is sum of base register and index register.
Base register: BX, BP
Index register: SI, DI
The physical memory address is calculated
according to the base register.
Example:
MOV AL, [BP+SI]
MOV AX, [BX+DI]
6. Indexed mode – In this type of addressing mode
the effective address is sum of index register and
displacement.
Example:
MOV AX, [SI+2000]
MOV AL, [DI+3000]
7. Based mode – In this the effective address is the
sum of base register and displacement.
Example:
MOV AL, [BP+ 0100]
8. Based indexed displacement mode – In this
type of addressing mode the effective address is the
sum of index register, base register and
displacement.
Example:
MOV AL, [SI+BP+2000]
9. String mode – This addressing mode is related
to string instructions. In this the value of SI and DI
are auto incremented and decremented depending
upon the value of directional flag.
Example:
MOVS B MOVS W
10. Input / Output mode – This addressing mode
is related with input output operations.
Example: IN A, 45
OUT A, 50
11. Relative mode –
In this the effective address is calculated with
reference to instruction pointer.
Example:
JNZ 8 bit address
IP=IP+8 bit address
Introduction to Registers
A register is a very small amount of very fast
memory that is built into the CPU (central
processing unit) in order to speed up its operations
by providing quick access to commonly used values.
Registers are the top of the memory hierarchy and
are the fastest way for the system to manipulate
data.
Registers are normally measured by the number of
bits they can hold, for example, an 8-bit register
means it can store 8 bits of data or a 32-bit register
means it can store 32 bit of data.
Registers are used to store data temporarily during
the execution of a program. Some of the registers
are accessible to the user through instructions.
Registers are divided in 5 major categories:
1. General Purpose Registers
 General Purpose Registers:
There are four General Purpose Registers named as
follows:
1. AX (Accumulator Register): commonly used
for arithmetic & logic data transfer.
2. BX (Base Address Register): used to save the
address of memory location.
3. CX (Count Register): keeps record of iterations
while a LOOP instruction is running.
4. DX (Data Register): holds data of the
instruction currently being executed.
Pointer Registers:
There are three pointer registers that are used to
point toward some memory address.
1. BP (Base Pointer): points to the base element
of the stack.
 Index Registers:
Index registers are used for indexed addressing and
sometimes also used in addition and subtraction.
There are two sets of index registers:
1. SI (Source Index): used as source index for
string operations.
2. DI (Destination Index): used as destination
index for string operations.
Segment Registers:
Segments are specific areas defined in a program
for containing data, code and stack. There are three
main segments:
1. Code Segment: it contains all the instructions to
be executed.
2. Data Segment: it contains data, constants and
work areas.
3. Stack Segment: it contains data and return
 Flag Registers:
These registers are programmable. It can be used to
store and transfer the data from the registers by
using instruction.
The common flag bits are:
 Overflow Flag (OF): indicates the overflow of a
high-order bit (leftmost bit) of data after a signed
arithmetic operation.
 Direction Flag (DF): determines left or right
direction for moving or comparing string data. When
the DF value is 0, the string operation takes left-to-
right direction and when the value is set to 1, the
string operation takes right-to-left direction.
 Interrupt Flag (IF): determines whether the
external interrupts like keyboard entry, etc., are to
be ignored or processed. It disables the external
interrupt when the value is 0 and enables interrupts
 Sign Flag (SF): shows the sign of the result of an
arithmetic operation. This flag is set according to the
sign of a data item following the arithmetic
operation The sign is indicated by the high-order of
leftmost bit. A positive result clears the value of SF
to 0 and negative result sets it to 1.
 Zero Flag (ZF): indicates the result of an
arithmetic or comparison operation. A nonzero result
clears the zero flag to 0, and a zero result sets it to
1.
 Auxiliary Carry Flag (AF): contains the carry
from bit 3 to bit 4 following an arithmetic
operation; used for specialized arithmetic. The AF is
set when a 1-byte arithmetic
operation causes a carry from bit 3 into bit 4.
 Parity Flag (PF): indicates the total number of 1-
bits in the result obtained from an arithmetic
 Carry Flag (CF): contains the carry of 0 or 1 from
a high-order bit (leftmost) after an arithmetic
operation. It also stores the contents of last bit of a
shift or rotate operation.
 CPU Registers
• The 8086/8088 contains eight general-
purpose registers, four segment
registers, an instruction pointer
register and a flag register.
• The following figure shows the register
map of the 8086/8088.

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 CPU Registers

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 General purpose registers
• 8086 CPU has 8 general purpose registers;
• AX - the accumulator register (divided into AH / AL).
• BX - the base address register (divided into BH / BL).
• CX - the count register (divided into CH / CL).
• DX - the data register (divided into DH / DL).
• SI - source index register
• DI - destination index register
• BP - base pointer
• SP - stack pointer.

• Four general purpose registers (AX, BX, CX, DX) are made of
two separate 8 bit registers, for example if AX=
0011000000111001, then AH=00110000 and AL=00111001.
Therefore, when you modify any of the 8 bit registers 16 bit
register is also updated, and vice-versa. The same is for other
three registers, "H" is for high and "L" is for low part.
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 Segment Registers
• CS (Code Segment)
– Points at the segment containing the current
program
• DS (Data Segment)
– Generally points at segment where variables are
defined.
• SS (Stack Segment)
– Points at the segment containing the stack
• ES (Extra Segment)
Special purpose registers
– Extra segment register, it's up to a coder to define its
 IP - the instruction pointer
usage.
 register always works together with CS segment register and it
points to currently executing instruction.
 Flags Register - determines the current state of the processor.
 is modified automatically by CPU after mathematical
operations, this allows to determine the type of the result, and
to determine conditions to transfer control to other parts of the
44
program.
 14 types of Registers
• AX - the accumulator register  input/output
operations a, ax, eax, rax.
• BX - the base address register Holds address of
data b, bx, ebx, rbx..
• CX - the count register counts used in loop cx,
ecx, rcx
• DX - the data register holds data for output d,
dx, edx, rdx.
• SI - source index register  points the source
operand
• DI - destination index register points the
destination operand
• BP - base pointer base of the top of the stack
• SP - stack pointer  points current top of stack.
• CS (Code Segment) holds address of code
segment
• DS (Data Segment)  holds address of data
segment
45
• SS (Stack Segment)  holds address of stack
 I/O Interfaces
• I/O devices such as keyboards and displays
establish communication of computer with outside
world.
• Devices can be interfaced in two ways
– I/O mapped I/O and
– Memory mapped I/O.
• In I/O mapped I/O, device is identified with a unique
device number and data are transferred thru IN/OUT
instruction.
• Memory mapped I/O each device is identified with
16 bit address. I/O devices are considered to be a
part of memory and memory related instruction is
used for data transfer.
• An I/O interface must be able to
– Determine whether or not it is being interfaced
– Determine whether it has to send data to CPU or
receive data from CPU 46
•
interface
An Interface can be divided into two parts.
– A part that interfaces to the I/O device and
– A part that interfaces to the system bus.
• There must be drivers and receivers to maintain
– signal quality,
– logic for translating the interface control signals
to proper handshaking signals,
– logic for decoding address that appear on the
bus.
• Handshaking signals are used to determine in
which direction transfer has to take place whether
from CPU or to CPU.
– It should determine whether it is a READ or
WRITE operation. Interrupt signals also must be
handled here.
• Address decoder determine whether it is I/O
mapped I/O or Memory
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 Memory Mapped

• Memory I/O devices are mapped into the system

memory map along with RAM and ROM.
• To access a hardware device, simply read or write
to those 'special' addresses using the normal
memory access instructions.
• The advantage to this method is that every
instruction which can access memory can be used
to manipulate an I/O device.
• The disadvantage to this method is that the entire
address bus must be fully decoded for every device.
– For example, a machine with a 32-bit address bus
would require logic gates to resolve the state of
all 32 address lines to properly decode the
specific address of any device. This increases the
cost of adding hardware to the machine.

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 I/O Mapped

• I/O devices are mapped into a

separate address space. This is
usually accomplished by
having a different set of signal
lines to indicate a memory
access versus a port access.
• The advantage to this system
is that less logic is needed to
decode a discrete address and
therefore less cost to add
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 Data Movement Instruction
The 8086 microprocessor supports 8 types of
instructions −
1. Data Transfer Instructions
2. Arithmetic Instructions
3. Bit Manipulation Instructions
4. String Instructions
5. Program Execution Transfer Instructions (Branch
& Loop Instructions)
6. Processor Control Instructions
7. Iteration Control Instructions
8. Interrupt Instructions
 1. Data Transfer Instructions
These instructions are used to transfer the data from
the source operand to the destination operand.
Following are the list of instructions under this group
−
Instruction to transfer a word
MOV − Used to copy the byte or word from the
provided source to the provided destination.
PPUSH − Used to put a word at the top of the stack.
POP − Used to get a word from the top of the stack
to the provided location.
PUSHA − Used to put all the registers into the
stack.
POPA − Used to get words from the stack to all
registers.
XCHG − Used to exchange the data from two
 Instructions for input and output port transfer
IN − Used to read a byte or word from the provided port
to the accumulator.
OUT − Used to send out a byte or word from the
accumulator to the provided port.

Instructions to transfer the address

LEA − Used to load the address of operand into the
provided register.
LDS − Used to load DS register and other provided
register from the memory
LES − Used to load ES register and other provided
register from the memory.

Instructions to transfer flag registers

LAHF − Used to load AH with the low byte of the flag
register.
 2. Arithmetic Instructions
These instructions are used to perform arithmetic
operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division, etc.
Following is the list of instructions under this group
−
Instructions to perform addition
ADD − Used to add the provided byte to byte/word
to word.
ADC − Used to add with carry.
INC − Used to increment the provided byte/word by
1.
AAA − Used to adjust ASCII after addition.
DAA − Used to adjust the decimal after the
addition/subtraction operation.
Instructions to perform subtraction
NPG − Used to negate each bit of the provided
byte/word and add 1/2’s complement.
CMP − Used to compare 2 provided byte/word.
AAS − Used to adjust ASCII codes after subtraction.
DAS − Used to adjust decimal after subtraction.
Instruction to perform multiplication
MUL − Used to multiply unsigned byte by byte/word by
word.
IMUL − Used to multiply signed byte by byte/word by
word.
AAM − Used to adjust ASCII codes after multiplication.
Instructions to perform division
DIV − Used to divide the unsigned word by
byte/unsigned double word by word.
IDIV − Used to divide the signed word by byte/signed
double word by word.
AAD − Used to adjust ASCII codes after division.
CBW − Used to fill the upper byte of the word with the
 3. Bit Manipulation Instructions
These instructions are used to perform operations
where data bits are involved, i.e. operations like
logical, shift, etc.
Following is the list of instructions under this group
−
Instructions to perform logical operation
NOT − Used to invert each bit of a byte or word.
AND − Used for adding each bit in a byte/word with
the corresponding bit in another byte/word.
OR − Used to multiply each bit in a byte/word with
the corresponding bit in another byte/word.
XOR − Used to perform Exclusive-OR operation over
each bit in a byte/word with the corresponding bit in
another byte/word.
TEST − Used to add operands to update flags,
 Instructions to perform shift operations
SHL/SAL − Used to shift bits of a byte/word towards
left and put zero(S) in LSBs.
SHR − Used to shift bits of a byte/word towards the
right and put zero(S) in MSBs.
SAR − Used to shift bits of a byte/word towards the
right and copy the old MSB into the new MSB.
Instructions to perform rotate operations
ROL − Used to rotate bits of byte/word towards the
left, i.e. MSB to LSB and to Carry Flag [CF].
ROR − Used to rotate bits of byte/word towards the
right, i.e. LSB to MSB and to Carry Flag [CF].
RCR − Used to rotate bits of byte/word towards the
right, i.e. LSB to CF and CF to MSB.
RCL − Used to rotate bits of byte/word towards the
left, i.e. MSB to CF and CF to LSB.
 String Instructions
String is a group of bytes/words and their memory is
always allocated in a sequential order.
Following is the list of instructions under this group −
REP − Used to repeat the given instruction till CX ≠ 0.
REPE/REPZ − Used to repeat the given instruction until
CX = 0 or zero flag ZF = 1.
REPNE/REPNZ − Used to repeat the given instruction
until CX = 0 or zero flag ZF = 1.
MOVS/MOVSB/MOVSW − Used to move the byte/word
from one string to another.
COMS/COMPSB/COMPSW − Used to compare two
string bytes/words.
INS/INSB/INSW − Used as an input string/byte/word
from the I/O port to the provided memory location.
OUTS/OUTSB/OUTSW − Used as an output
string/byte/word from the provided memory location to
the I/O port.
LODS/LODSB/LODSW − Used to store the string byte
into AL or string word into AX.
Program Execution Transfer Instructions (Branch and Loop
Instructions)
These instructions are used to transfer/branch the
instructions during an execution. It includes the following
instructions −
Instructions to transfer the instruction during an
execution without any condition −
CALL − Used to call a procedure and save their return
address to the stack.
RET − Used to return from the procedure to the main
program.
JMP − Used to jump to the provided address to proceed
to the next instruction.
Instructions to transfer the instruction during an
execution with some conditions −
JA/JNBE − Used to jump if above/not below/equal
JE/JZ − Used to jump if equal/zero flag ZF = 1
JG/JNLE − Used to jump if greater/not less than/equal
instruction satisfies.
JGE/JNL − Used to jump if greater than/equal/not less
than instruction satisfies.
JL/JNGE − Used to jump if less than/not greater
than/equal instruction satisfies.
JLE/JNG − Used to jump if less than/equal/if not greater
than instruction satisfies.
JNC − Used to jump if no carry flag (CF = 0)
JNE/JNZ − Used to jump if not equal/zero flag ZF = 0
JNO − Used to jump if no overflow flag OF = 0
JNP/JPO − Used to jump if not parity/parity odd PF = 0
JNS − Used to jump if not sign SF = 0
JO − Used to jump if overflow flag OF = 1
JP/JPE − Used to jump if parity/parity even PF = 1
JS − Used to jump if sign flag SF = 1
 4. Processor Control Instructions
These instructions are used to control the processor
action by setting/resetting the flag values.
Following are the instructions under this group −
STC − Used to set carry flag CF to 1
CLC − Used to clear/reset carry flag CF to 0
CMC − Used to put complement at the state of carry
flag CF.
STD − Used to set the direction flag DF to 1
CLD − Used to clear/reset the direction flag DF to 0
STI − Used to set the interrupt enable flag to 1, i.e.,
enable INTR input.
CLI − Used to clear the interrupt enable flag to 0,
i.e., disable INTR input.
5. Iteration Control Instructions
These instructions are used to execute the given
LOOP − Used to loop a group of instructions until
the condition satisfies, i.e., CX = 0
LOOPE/LOOPZ − Used to loop a group of
instructions till it satisfies ZF = 1 & CX = 0
LOOPNE/LOOPNZ − Used to loop a group of
instructions till it satisfies ZF = 0 & CX = 0
JCXZ − Used to jump to the provided address if CX
=0
6. Interrupt Instructions
These instructions are used to call the interrupt
during program execution.
INT − Used to interrupt the program during
execution and calling service specified.
INTO − Used to interrupt the program during
execution if OF = 1
IRET − Used to return from interrupt service to the
main program
Interrupt is the method of creating a temporary
halt during program execution and allows peripheral
devices to access the microprocessor. The
microprocessor responds to that interrupt with
an ISR(Interrupt Service Routine), which is a short
program to instruct the microprocessor on how to
handle the interrupt.
 Hardware Interrupts
Hardware interrupt is caused by any peripheral
device by sending a signal through a specified pin to
the microprocessor.
The 8086 has two hardware interrupt pins, i.e. NMI
and INTR. NMI is a non-maskable interrupt and INTR
is a maskable interrupt having lower priority. One
more interrupt pin associated is INTA called interrupt
acknowledge.
NMI
It is a single non-maskable interrupt pin (NMI)
having higher priority than the maskable interrupt
request pin (INTR)and it is of type 2 interrupt.
When this interrupt is activated, these actions take
place −
i. Completes the current instruction that is in
progress
iii. IP is loaded from the contents of the word
location 00008H
iv. CS is loaded from the contents of the next word
location 0000AH.
v. Interrupt flag and trap flag are reset to 0.
INTR
The INTR is a maskable interrupt because the
microprocessor will be interrupted only if interrupts
are enabled using set interrupt flag instruction. It
should not be enabled using clear interrupt Flag
instruction.
The INTR interrupt is activated by an I/O port. If
the interrupt is enabled and NMI is disabled, then
the microprocessor first completes the current
execution and sends ‘0’ on INTA pin twice.
The first ‘0’ means INTA informs the external device
to get ready and during the second ‘0’ the
These actions are taken by the microprocessor −
i. First completes the current instruction
ii. Activates INTA output and receives the interrupt
type, say X
iii. Flag register value, CS value of the return
address and IP value of the return address are
pushed on to the stack
iv. IP value is loaded from the contents of word
location X × 4
v. CS is loaded from the contents of the next word
location
vi. Interrupt flag and trap flag is reset to 0
Software Interrupts
Some instructions are inserted at the desired
position into the program to create interrupts. These
interrupt instructions can be used to test the
working of various interrupt handlers. It includes −
Its execution includes the following steps −
i. Flag register value is pushed on to the stack
ii. CS value of the return address and IP value of
the return address are pushed on to the stack
iii. IP is loaded from the contents of the word
location ‘type number’ × 4
iv. CS is loaded from the contents of the next word
location
v. Interrupt Flag and Trap Flag are reset to 0
The starting address for type0 interrupt is 000000H,
for type1 interrupt is 00004H similarly for type2 is
00008H and ……so on. The first five pointers are
dedicated interrupt pointers. i.e. −
TYPE 0 interrupt represents division by zero
situation.
TYPE 1 interrupt represents single-step execution
during the debugging of a program. TYPE
The interrupts from Type 5 to Type 31 are reserved
for other advanced microprocessors, and interrupts
from 32 to Type 255 are available for hardware and
software interrupts.
INT 3-Break Point Interrupt Instruction
It is a 1-byte instruction having op-code is CCH.
These instructions are inserted into the program so
that when the processor reaches there, then it stops
the normal execution of program and follows the
break-point procedure.
Its execution includes the following steps −
i. Flag register value is pushed on to the stack
ii. CS value of the return address and IP value of
the return address are pushed on to the stack
iii. IP is loaded from the contents of the word
location 3×4 = 0000CH
iv. CS is loaded from the contents of the next word
INTO - Interrupt on overflow instruction
It is a 1-byte instruction and their mnemonic INTO.
The op-code for this instruction is CEH. As the name
suggests it is a conditional interrupt instruction, i.e.
it is active only when the overflow flag is set to 1
and branches to the interrupt handler whose
interrupt type number is 4. If the overflow flag is
reset then, the execution continues to the next
instruction.
Its execution includes the following steps −
i. Flag register values are pushed on to the stack.
ii. CS value of the return address and IP value of
the return address are pushed on to the stack.
iii. IP is loaded from the contents of word location
4×4 = 00010H
iv. CS is loaded from the contents of the next word
location.
 INSTRUCTION FORMATS
• A computer will usually have a variety of instruction
code formats.
• It is the function of the control unit within the CPU to
interpret each instruction code and provide the
necessary control functions needed to process the
instruction.
• The most common fields found in instruction formats
are:
• An operation code field: that specifies the operation
to be performed.
– The operation code field of an instruction is a group
of bits that define various processor operations,
such as add, subtract, complement, and shift
• An address field: that designates a memory address
or a processor registers.
• A mode field: that specifies the way the operand or 69
 INSTRUCTION FORMATS

• Computers may have instructions of

several different lengths containing
varying number of addresses.
• The number of address fields in the
instruction format of a computer
depends on the internal organization
of its registers.
• Most computers fall into one of three
types of CPU organizations:
– Single accumulator organization.
– General register
Compiled byorganization.
Yonas A. and Hailemari 70
am M. [2010]
 Single accumulator organization

• In this type of CPU organization all operations are

performed with an implied accumulator register.
• The instruction format in this type of computer uses
one address field.
• For example, the instruction that specifies an
arithmetic addition is defined by an assembly
language instruction as ADD X.
– Where X is the address of the operand.
– The ADD instruction in this case results in the
operation
• AC ← AC + M[X].
– AC is the accumulator register and M[X] symbolizes
the memory word located at address X. 71
 General register organization.
• The instruction format in this type of computer
needs three register address fields.
• Thus, the instruction for an arithmetic addition may
be written in an assembly language as:
• ADD R1, R2, R3
• To denote the operation R1 ← R2 + R3. The number
of address fields in the instruction can be reduced
from three to two if the destination register is the
same as one of the source registers.
• Thus the instruction ADD R1, R2 Would denote the
operation R1 ← R1 + R2. Only register addresses for
R1 and R2 need be specified in this instruction.
• Computers with multiple processor registers use the
move instruction with a mnemonic MOV to
symbolize a transfer instruction. 72
 Stack organization.

• Computers with stack organization would have

PUSH and POP instructions which require an
address field.
• Thus, the instruction PUSH X Will push the word at
address X to the top of the stack.
• The stack pointer is updated automatically.
• Operation-type instructions do not need an address
field in stack-organized computers. This is because
the operation is performed on the two items that
are on top of the stack.
• The instruction ADD In a stack computer consists of
an operation code only with no address field.
• This operation has the effect of popping the two top
numbers from the stack, adding the numbers, and
pushing the sum into the stack.
73
• There is no need to specify operands with an
 THREE-ADDRESS INSTRUCTIONS
• Computers with three-address instruction formats can
use each address field to specify either a processor
register or a memory operand.
• The program in assembly language that evaluates X = (A
+ B) ∗ (C + D) is shown below.
– ADD R1, A, B R1 ← M [A] + M [B]
– ADD R2, C, D R2 ← M [C] + M [D]
– MUL X, R1, R2 M [X] ← R1 ∗ R2
• It is assumed that the computer has two processor
registers, R1 and R2. The symbol M [A] denotes the
operand at memory address symbolized by A.
• The advantage of the three-address format is that it
results in short programs when evaluating arithmetic
expressions.
• The disadvantage is that the binary-coded instructions
require too many bits to specify three addresses.
74
• An example of a commercial computer that uses three-
 TWO-ADDRESS INSTRUCTIONS

• Two address instructions are the most common in

commercial computers. Here again each address field
can specify either a processor register or a memory
word.
• The program to evaluate X = (A + B) ∗ (C + D) is as
follows:
– MOV R1, A R1 ← M [A]
– ADD R1, B R1 ← R1 + M [B]
– MOV R2, C R2 ← M [C]
– ADD R2, D R2 ← R2 + M [D]
– MUL R1, R2 R1 ← R1∗R2
– MOV X, R1 M [X] ← R1
• The MOV instruction moves or transfers the operands
to and from memory and processor registers.
• The first symbol listed in an instruction is assumed to 75
Compiled by Yonas A. and
be both a source and the destination where the result
 One Address Instructions
• One-address instructions use an implied accumulator
(AC) register for all data manipulation.
• For multiplication and division there is a need for a
second register. However, here we will neglect the
second and assume that the AC contains the result of
tall operations.
• The program to evaluate X = (A + B) ∗ (C + D) is
– LOAD A AC ← M [A]
– ADD B AC ← A [C] + M [B]
– STORE T M [T] ← AC
– LOAD C AC ← M [C]
– ADD D AC ← AC + M [D]
– MUL T AC ← AC ∗ M [T]
– STORE X M [X] ← AC
• All operations are done between the AC register and76a
 Zero Address Instructions
• A stack-organized computer does not use an address
field for the instructions ADD and MUL.
• The PUSH and POP instructions, however, need an
address field to specify the operand that communicates
with the stack.
• The following program shows how X = (A + B) ∗ (C + D)
will be written for a stack organized computer. (TOS
stands for top of stack)
– PUSH A TOS ← A
– PUSH B TOS ← B
– ADD TOS ← (A + B)
– PUSH C TOS ← C
– PUSH D TOS ← D
– ADD TOS ← (C + D)
– MUL TOS ← (C + D) ∗ (A + B)
– POP X M [X] ← TOS 77
•