UNIT V

control systems

Dr.A.SASIKUMAR
Assistant Professor
GCT, CBE
Process industries and Discrete manufacturing industries
- levels of automation
- Variables and Parameters
- Continuous Control Systems
- Steady State Optimization
- Adaptive Control
- Computer Process Control - control requirements,
capabilities and forms of computer process control
Computer process monitoring
- Direct Digital Control
- Distributed Control Systems
- Hardware components for automation and process control
- Discrete Process Control
- Logic control, Sequencing
- Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)
 Industrial Control Systems

1. Process Industries vs. Discrete Manufacturing Industries

2. Continuous vs. Discrete Control
3. Computer Process Control
 Industrial Control - Defined
The automatic regulation of unit operations and their associated
equipment as well as the integration and coordination of the unit
operations into the larger production system.
 Unit operation
 Usually refers to a manufacturing operation.
 Can also apply to material handling or other equipment.
 Process Industries vs.
Discrete Manufacturing Industries

 Process industries
 Production operations are performed on amounts of materials.
 Materials: liquids, gases, powders, etc.
 Discrete manufacturing industries
 Production operations are performed on quantities of materials.
 Parts, product units.
 Definitions: Variable and Parameters
 Variables - outputs of the process.
 Parameters - inputs to the process.
 Continuous variables and parameters - they are uninterrupted
as time proceeds.
 Also considered to be analog - can take on any value within a
certain range.
 They are not restricted to a discrete set of values.
 Discrete variables and parameters - can take on only certain
values within a given range.
 Discrete Variables and Parameters
Categories:
 Binary - they can take on either of two possible values,
ON or OFF, 1 or 0, etc.
 Discrete other than binary - they can take on more
than two possible values but less than an infinite
number of possible values.
 Pulse data - a train of pulses that can be counted.
Continuous and Discrete
Variables and Parameters
 Types of Control
 Just as there are two basic types of variables and parameters
in processes, there are also two corresponding types of
control:
 Continuous control - variables and parameters are
continuous and analog.
 Discrete control - variables and parameters are discrete,
mostly binary discrete.
 Continuous Control
 Usual objective is to maintain the value of an output variable at a
desired level.
 Parameters and variables are usually continuous.
 Similar to operation of a feedback control system.
 Most continuous industrial processes have multiple feedback
loops.
 Examples of continuous processes:
 Control of the output of a chemical reaction that depends on
temperature, pressure and input flow rate of several reactants.
 Control of the position of a cutting tool relative to work part in a
CNC machine tool.
Types of Continuous Process Control
 Regulatory control
 Feed forward control
 Steady-State optimization
 Adaptive control
 On-line search strategies
 Other specialized techniques
 Expert systems
 Neural networks
 Regulatory Control
 Objective - maintain process performance at a certain level or
within a given tolerance band of that level.
 Appropriate when performance relates to a quality measure.
 Performance measure is sometimes computed based on several
output variables.
 Performance measure is called the Index of performance (IP).
 Problem with regulatory control is that an error must exist in order
to initiate control action.
Regulatory Control
 Feed forward Control
 Objective - anticipate the effect of disturbances that will upset the
process by sensing and compensating for them before they affect
the process.
 Mathematical model captures the effect of the disturbance on the
process.
 Complete compensation for the disturbance is difficult due to
variations, imperfections in the mathematical model and
imperfections in the control actions.
 Usually combined with regulatory control.
 Regulatory control and feed forward control are more closely
associated with process industries.
Feed forward Control
Combined with Feedback Control
 Steady-State Optimization

Class of optimization techniques in which the process exhibits

the following characteristics:
1. Well-defined index of performance (IP)
2. Known relationship between process variables and IP
3. System parameter values that optimize IP can be
determined mathematically.
 Open-loop system
 Optimization techniques include differential calculus,
mathematical programming, etc.
Steady State (Open-Loop)
Optimal Control
 Adaptive Control
 Because steady-state optimization is open-loop, it cannot
compensate for disturbances.
 Adaptive control is a self-correcting form of optimal control
that includes feedback control.
 Measures the relevant process variables during operation
(feedback control).
 Uses a control algorithm that attempts to optimize some
index of performance (optimal control).
 Adaptive Control Operates in a
Time-Varying Environment
 The environment changes over time and the changes have a
potential effect on system performance.
 Example: Supersonic aircraft operates differently in
subsonic flight than in supersonic flight.
 If the control algorithm is fixed, the system may perform quite
differently in one environment than in another.
 An adaptive control system is designed to compensate for its
changing environment by altering some aspect of its control
algorithm to achieve optimal performance.
 Three Functions in Adaptive Control
1. Identification function – current value of IP is determined based
on measurements of process variables.
2. Decision function – decide what changes should be made to
improve system performance.
 Change one or more input parameters.
 Alter some internal function of the controller.
3. Modification function – implement the decision function.
 Concerned with physical changes (hardware rather than
software).
Adaptive Control System
 On-Line Search Strategies
 Special class of adaptive control in which the decision function
cannot be sufficiently defined.
 Relationship between input parameters and IP is not known, or
not known well enough to implement the previous form of
adaptive control.
 Instead, experiments are performed on the process.
 Small systematic changes are made in input parameters to
observe effects.
 Based on observed effects, larger changes are made to drive the
system toward optimal performance.
 Discrete Control Systems
 Process parameters and variables are discrete.
 Process parameters and variables are changed at discrete
moments in time.
 The changes are defined in advance by the program of
instructions.
 The changes are executed for either of two reasons:
1. The state of the system has changed (event-driven
changes).
2. A certain amount of time has elapsed (time driven changes).
 Event-Driven Changes
 Executed by the controller in response to some event that has
altered the state of the system.
 Examples:
 A robot loads a work part into a fixture, and the part is sensed
by a limit switch in the fixture.
 The diminishing level of plastic in the hopper of an injection
molding machine triggers a low-level switch, which opens a
valve to start the flow of more plastic into the hopper.
 Counting parts moving along a conveyor past an optical
sensor.
 Time-Driven Events

 Executed by the controller either at a specific point in time or after

a certain time lapse.
 Examples:
 The factory “shop clock” sounds a bell at specific times to
indicate start of shift, break start and stop times, and end of
shift.
 Heat treating operations must be carried out for a certain
length of time.
 In a washing machine, the agitation cycle is set to operate for a
certain length of time.
 By contrast, filling the tub is event-driven.
 Two Types of Discrete Control
1. Combinational logic control – controls the execution of event-
driven changes.
 Also known as logic control.
 Output at any moment depends on the values of the inputs.
 Parameters and variables = 0 or 1 (OFF or ON).
2. Sequential control – controls the execution of time-driven
changes.
 Uses internal timing devices to determine when to initiate
changes in output variables.
 Computer Process Control
 Origins in the 1950s in the process industries.
 Mainframe computers – slow, expensive, unreliable.
 Set point control.
 Direct digital control (DDC) system installed 1962.
 Minicomputer introduced in late 1960s, microcomputer introduced
in early 1970s.
 Programmable logic controllers introduced early 1970s for discrete
process control.
 Distributed control starting around 1975.
 PCs for process control early 1990s.
 Two Basic Requirements for
Real-Time Process Control
1. Process-initiated interrupts
 Controller must respond to incoming signals from the
process (event-driven changes).
 Depending on relative priority, controller may have to
interrupt current program to respond.
2. Timer-initiated actions
 Controller must be able to execute certain actions at
specified points in time (time-driven changes).
 Examples: (1) scanning sensor values, (2) turning
switches on and off, (3) re-computing optimal
parameter values.
 Other Computer Control Requirements

3. Computer commands to process

 To drive process actuators.
4. System- and program-initiated events
 System initiated events - communications between
computer and peripherals.
 Program initiated events - non-process-related actions,
such as printing reports.
5. Operator-initiated events – to accept input from personnel
 Example: emergency stop.
Capabilities of Computer Control

 Polling (data sampling)

 Interlocks
 Interrupt system
 Exception handling
 Polling (Data Sampling)
Periodic sampling of data to indicate status of process
 Issues:
1. Polling frequency – reciprocal of time interval between data
samples
2. Polling order – sequence in which data collection points are
sampled
3. Polling format – alternative sampling procedures:
 All sensors polled every cycle
 Update only data that has changed this cycle
 High-level and low-level scanning
 Interlocks

Safeguard mechanisms for coordinating the activities of

two or more devices and preventing one device from
interfering with the other(s)
1. Input interlocks – signal from an external device sent to the
controller; possible functions:
 Proceed to execute work cycle program
 Interrupt execution of work cycle program
2. Output interlocks – signal sent from controller to external
device
 Interrupt System
Computer control feature that permits the execution of the
current program to be suspended in order to execute another
program in response to an incoming signal indicating a higher
priority event
 Internal interrupt – generated by the computer itself
 Examples: timer-initiated events, polling, system and
program initiated interrupts
 External interrupts – generated external to the computer
 Examples: process-initiated interrupts, operator inputs
 Interrupt Systems:
(a) Single-Level and (b) Multilevel

(a)

(b)
 Exception Handling
 An exception is an event that is outside the normal or desired
operation of the process control system.
 Exception handling is a form of error detection and
recovery.
 Examples of exceptions:
 Product quality problem.
 Process variable outside normal operating range.
 Shortage of raw materials.
 Hazardous conditions, e.g., fire.
 Controller malfunction.
 Forms of Computer Process Control

1. Computer process monitoring

2. Direct digital control (DDC)
3. Numerical control and robotics
4. Programmable logic control
5. Supervisory control
6. Distributed control systems and personal computers
 Computer Process Monitoring

Computer observes process and associated equipment,

collects and records data from the operation.
 The computer does not directly control the process.
 Types of data collected:
 Process data – input parameters and output variables.
 Equipment data – machine utilization, tool change
scheduling, diagnosis of malfunctions.
 Product data – to satisfy government requirements,
e.g., pharmaceutical and medical.
 (a) Process Monitoring, (b) Open-Loop
Control, and (c) Closed-Loop Control

(a)

(b)

(c)
 Direct Digital Control (DDC)
It is a computer process control in which certain components in a
conventional analog control system are replaced by the digital
computer.
 Circa: 1960s using mainframes.
 Applications: process industries.
 Accomplished on a time-shared, sampled-data basis rather than
continuously by dedicated components.
 Components remaining in DDC: sensors and actuators.
 Components replaced in DDC: analog controllers, recording
and display instruments, set point dials.
A Typical Analog Control Loop
Components of a Direct Digital Control
System
 DDC (continued)
 Originally seen as a more efficient means of performing
the same functions as analog control.
 Additional opportunities became apparent in DDC:
 More control options than traditional analog control
(PID control), e.g., combining discrete and continuous
control.
 Integration and optimization of multiple loops.
 Editing of control programs.
 Numerical Control and Robotics

 Computer numerical control (CNC) – computer directs a machine

tool through a sequence of processing steps defined by a
program of instructions.
 Distinctive feature of NC – control of the position of a tool
relative to the object being processed.
 Computations required to determine tool trajectory.
 Industrial robotics – manipulator joints are controlled to move and
orient end-of-arm through a sequence of positions in the work
cycle.
 Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)
Microprocessor-based controller that executes a
program of instructions to implement logic, sequencing,
counting, and arithmetic functions to control industrial
machines and processes.
 Introduced around 1970 to replace electromechanical relay
controllers in discrete product manufacturing.
 Today’s PLCs perform both discrete and continuous control in
both process industries and discrete product industries.
 Supervisory Control

In the process industries, supervisory control denotes a control

system that manages the activities of a number of integrated
unit operations to achieve certain economic objectives.
In discrete manufacturing, supervisory control is the control
system that directs and coordinates the activities of several
interacting pieces of equipment in a manufacturing system.
 Functions: efficient scheduling of production, tracking tool
lives, optimize operating parameters.
 Most closely associated with the process industries.
Supervisory Control Superimposed on
Process Level Control System
 Distributed Control Systems (DCS)
Multiple microcomputers connected together to share and
distribute the process control workload.
 Features:
 Multiple process control stations to control individual loops and
devices.
 Central control room where supervisory control is accomplished.
 Local operator stations for redundancy.
 Communications network (data highway).
Distributed Control System
 DCS Advantages
 Can be installed in a very basic configuration, then expanded
and enhanced as needed in the future.
 Multiple computers facilitate parallel multitasking.
 Redundancy due to multiple computers.
 Control cabling is reduced compared to central controller
configuration.
 Networking provides process information throughout the
enterprise for more efficient plant and process management.
 PCs in Process Control

Two categories of personal computer applications in process

control:
1. Operator interface – PC is interfaced to one or more PLCs or
other devices that directly control the process.
 PC performs certain monitoring and supervisory functions,
but does not directly control process.
2. Direct control – PC is interfaced directly to the process and
controls its operations in real time.
 Traditional thinking is that this is risky.
 Enablers of PCs for Direct Control
 Widespread familiarity of workers with PCs.
 Availability of high performance PCs.
 Cycle speeds of PCs now exceed those of PLCs.
 Open architecture philosophy in control system design.
 Hardware and software vendors comply with standards
that allow their products to be interoperable.
 PC operating systems that facilitate real-time control and
networking.
 PC industrial grade enclosures.
 Enterprise-Wide
Integration of Factory Data
 Managers have direct access to factory operations.
 Planners have most current data on production times and rates
for scheduling purposes.
 Sales personnel can provide realistic delivery dates to
customers, based on current shop loading.
 Order trackers can provide current status information to inquiring
customers.
 QC can access quality issues from previous orders.
 Accounting has most recent production cost data.
 Production personnel can access product design data to clarify
ambiguities.
Enterprise-Wide PC-based
Distributed Control System
 Hardware Components
for Automation

1. Sensors
2. Actuators
3. Analog-to-Digital Conversion
4. Digital-to-Analog Conversion
5. Input / Output Devices for Discrete Data
 Computer-Process Interface

 To implement process control, the computer must collect data

from and transmit signals to the production process.
 Components required to implement the interface:
 Sensors to measure continuous and discrete process
variables.
 Actuators to drive continuous and discrete process
parameters.
 Devices for ADC and DAC.
 I/O devices for discrete data.
Computer Process Control System
 Sensors

A sensor is a transducer that converts a

physical stimulus from one form into a more useful
form to measure the stimulus.
 Two basic categories:
1. Analog
2. Discrete
 Binary
 Digital (e.g., pulse counter)
 Sensor Transfer Function

The relationship between the value of the physical stimulus and

the value of the signal produced by the sensor in response to
the stimulus.
S = f(s)
where S = output signal, s = stimulus, and f(s) is the functional
relationship between them.
 Ideal functional form is simple proportional relationship:
S = C + ms
 Actuators

Hardware devices that convert a controller command signal

into a change in a physical parameter.
 The change is usually mechanical (e.g., position or velocity).
 An actuator is a transducer because it changes one type of
physical quantity into some alternative form.
 An actuator is usually activated by a low-level command signal,
so an amplifier may be required to provide sufficient power to
drive the actuator.
 Types of Actuators

1. Electrical actuators
 Electric motors
 DC servomotors
 AC motors
 Stepper motors
 Solenoids
2. Hydraulic actuators
 Use hydraulic fluid to amplify the controller command signal
3. Pneumatic actuators
 Use compressed air as the driving force
A Rotating Electric Motor
Torque-Speed Curve of a
DC Servomotor and Load Torque Plot
Typical Torque-Speed Curve of a
Stepper Motor
Solenoid
Cylinder and Piston: (a) Single-Acting
and (b) Double-Acting
 Analog-to-Digital Conversion
An ADC converts a continuous analog signal from
transducer into digital code for use by computer.
 ADC consists of three phases:
1. Sampling – converts the continuous signal into a
series of discrete analog signals at periodic intervals.
2. Quantization – each discrete analog is converted into
one of a finite number of (previously defined)
discrete amplitude levels.
3. Encoding – discrete amplitude levels are converted
into digital code.
 Hardware Devices in
Analog-to-Digital Conversion
 Features of an ADC

 Sampling rate – rate at which continuous analog signal is polled.

 Conversion time – how long it takes to convert the sampled
signal to digital code.
 Resolution – depends on number of quantization levels.
 Conversion method – means by which analog signal is encoded
into digital equivalent.
 Example – Successive approximation method .
Analog Signal Converted into a Series
of Discrete Data by A-to-D Converter
 Digital-to-Analog Conversion

Converts the digital output of the computer into a

continuous analog signal to drive an analog actuator (or
other analog device).
 DAC consists of two steps:
1. Decoding – digital output of computer is converted
into a series of analog values at discrete moments in
time.
2. Data holding – each successive value is changed into a
continuous signal that lasts until the next sampling
interval.
Data Holding Step in DAC: (a) Zero-
Order Hold and (b) First-Order Hold
 Input / Output Devices for Discrete Data

Binary data:
 Contact input interface – input data to computer
 Contact output interface – output data from computer
Discrete data other than binary:
 Contact input interface – input data to computer
 Contact output interface – output data from computer
Pulse data:
 Pulse counters - input data to computer
 Pulse generators - output data from computer
 Contact Input / Output Interfaces

Contact input interface – series of contacts that are open or

closed to indicate the status of individual binary devices
such as limit switches and valves.
 The computer periodically scans the contacts to update
values in memory.
 Can also be used for discrete data other than binary
(e.g., a photoelectric sensor array).
Contact output interface – communicates on/off signals
from the computer to the process.
 Values are maintained until changed by the computer.
 Pulse Counters and Generators
Pulse counter – converts a series of pulses (pulse train) into
a digital value.
 Digital value is then entered into the computer through
its input channel.
 Most common – counting electrical pulses.
 Used for both counting and measurement applications.
Pulse generator – a device that produces a series of
electrical signals.
 The number of pulses or frequency of the pulse train is
specified by the computer.
 Discrete Control Using PLCs and PCs

1. Discrete Process Control

2. Ladder Logic Diagrams
3. Programmable Logic Controllers
4. Personal Computers Using Soft Logic
 Discrete Process Control

Control systems that operate on parameters and

variables that change at discrete moments in time.
 Parameters and variables are also discrete, usually binary (0 or
1, off or on, open or closed, etc.)
Sensors Limit switch - Contact/no contact
Photo detector – On/off
Timer - On/off
Actuators Motor - On/off
Valve - Open/closed
Clutch - Engaged/not engaged
 Categories of Discrete Control

1. Logic control – event-driven changes

2. Sequencing – time-driven changes
 Logic Control

A switching system whose output at any moment is

determined exclusively by the values of inputs.
 No memory
 No operating characteristics that depend on time
 Also called combinational logic control.
 Elements of Logic Control

 Basic elements, called logic gates:

AND – output = 1 if all inputs = 1, zero otherwise
OR – output = 1 if any input = 1, zero otherwise
NOT – output = 1 if (single) input = 0, and vice versa
 Additional elements:
NAND – combination of AND and NOT
NOR – combination of OR and NOT
 AND Gate

Electrical circuit illustrating the operation of the logical AND

gate.
 OR Gate

Electrical circuit illustrating the operation of the logical OR

gate.
 NOT Gate

Electrical circuit illustrating the operation of the logical

NOT gate.
Symbols for Logical Gates:
U.S. and ISO
 Sequencing
A switching system that uses internal timing devices to
determine when to initiate changes in output variables.
 Outputs are usually generated “open loop”.
 No feedback that control function is executed
 Sequence of output signals is usually cyclical, as in a high production
work cycle.
 The signals occur in the same repeated pattern within each
regular cycle.
 Common sequencing devices:
 Timer – output switches on/off at preset times
 Counter – counts electrical pulses and stores them
 Ladder Logic Diagrams

A diagram in which various logic elements and other components

are displayed along horizontal rungs connected on either end to
two vertical rails.
 Types of elements and components:
1. Contacts - logical inputs (usually), e.g., limit switches, photo-
detector
2. Loads - outputs, e.g., motors, lights, alarms, solenoids
3. Timers - to specify length of delay
4. Counters - to count pulses received
Ladder Logic Diagram
Ladder Logic Diagram
Ladder Logic Diagram
Symbols for Common Elements
Used in Ladder Logic Diagrams
 Advantages of Ladder Logic Diagrams

 Familiar to shop personnel who must construct, test,

maintain, and repair the control system.
 Analogous to the electrical circuits used to accomplish logic
and sequence control.
 Principal technique for programming PLCs.
 Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

A microcomputer-based controller that uses stored

instructions in programmable memory to implement logic,
sequencing, timing, counting, and arithmetic functions through
digital or analog modules, for controlling machines and processes.
 Applications in both process industries and discrete
manufacturing.
 Introduced around 1970.
 Replaced hard-wired electromechanical relay panels.
Components of a PLC
 Advantages of PLCs Compared to
Relay Control Panels
 Programming a PLC is easier than wiring a relay control panel.
 PLC can be reprogrammed.
 PLCs take less floor space.
 Greater reliability, easier maintenance.
 PLC can be connected to computer systems (CIM).
 PLCs can perform a greater variety of control functions.
 PLC Components

1. Processor – executes logic and sequencing functions by operating on

the PLC inputs to determine the appropriate output signals.
2. Input/output module – connections to process.
3. Memory unit – contains the programs of logic, sequencing, and I/O
operations.
4. Power supply – converts 120 V (ac) to dc voltages of 5 V compatible
with process equipment.
5. Programming device.
 Typical PLC Operating Cycle
1. Input scan – inputs are read by processor and stored in
memory.
2. Program scan – control program is executed.
 Input values stored in memory are used in the control logic
calculations to determine values of outputs.
3. Output scan – output values are updated to agree with
calculated values.
 Time to perform the three steps (scan time) varies between 1
and 25 msec.
 Additional PLC Capabilities
 Analog control – PID control available on some PLCs for
continuous processes.
 Arithmetic functions – permits more complex control
algorithms to be implemented than conventional logic and
sequencing elements.
 Matrix functions – e.g., linear programming for optimal
control.
 Data processing and reporting – business applications.
 Blurs the distinction between PLCs and PCs.
 PLC Programming

 Graphical languages:
1. Ladder logic diagrams – most widely used.
2. Function block diagrams – instructions composed of
operation blocks that transform input signals.
3. Sequential function charts – series of steps and transitions
from one state to the next (Europe).
 Text-based languages:
1. Instruction list - low-level computer language.
2. Structured text – high-level computer language.
 Personal Computers Using Soft Logic

 Available in sturdy enclosures for plant environment.

 Membrane-type keyboards to protect against dirt, moisture,
etc.
 Can be ordered with I/O cards and other hardware to connect
to machines and processes.
 Installed with Windows for implementing control applications.
 Can be programmed with soft logic - software that emulates
the operations of the built-in control software in PLCs.
 Questions for Assignment Test

1) a) Explain about steady state optimal control.

b) Describe the adaptive control system with a block diagram.
2) Explain about computer process control.
3) Describe various computer interface hardware components
with neat sketches.
4) a) Briefly discuss the working of a direct digital control system.
b) Explain about Programmable controllers.
THANK YOU