RESEARCH METHODS

By Sangwani Chavula
 Introduction:

What is research?
• Research is an ORGANISED and SYSTEMATIC way of
FINDING ANSWERS to QUESTIONS.

• SYSTEMATIC because there is a definite set of

procedures and steps which you will follow.

• ORGANISED in that the there is a structure or method

in going about doing research.
• FINDING ANSWERS is the end of all research.
- Sometimes the answer is no, but it is still an
answer.
• QUESTIONS are central to research. If there is
no question, then the answer is of no use.
- Without a question, research has no focus,
drive or purpose.
Note: Failure to follow the guidelines will
prevent your findings from being accepted
and taken seriously.
 AIMS OF RESEARCH

The general aims of research are:-

• Observe and describe
• Predict
• Determine the causes
• Explain
The ultimate aims of research are to generate
measurable and testable data, gradually adding
to the accumulation of human knowledge.
 A. OBSERVE AND DESCRIBE
• The first stage of any research is to observe the
world around us and ask questions about why
things are happening.
• the aims of research are to understand and
evaluate what is happening.
• Descriptive research design is a scientific method
which involves observing and describing the
behaviour of a subject without influencing it in
any way.
• Mostly used in social science, psychology and
market research.
 Advantages of Observe and Describe
• The subject is observed in a completely
natural and unchanged natural environment.
• It gives a general overview of pointers to
possible research areas and worthwhile
hypotheses.
• Descriptive research is often used as a pre-
cursor to more statistical research designs.
 Disadvantages
• Since no variables are manipulated, there is no
way to statistically analyse the results.
• Hence results of observational studies are not
repeatable, and so there can be no replication
of the experiment and reviewing of results.
 B. PREDICT

• Given specific information about how an outcome or

result was achieved, one should be able to predict
with some measure of accuracy, future likely
outcomes under the same circumstances or situation.
• You make a statement predicting what you expect the
final answer to be.
• Techniques used in predicting include regression
analysis, where a model is proposed, the limitations
of the conditions under which the variable performs
and one can then predict future outcome.
 C. DETERMINATION OF CAUSES

• The idea is to manipulate and control one or more

variables and observe the response.

D. EXPLAIN
• This answers the “Why” and “How” things are
happening.
• The aim being to separate quality sources from the
inaccurate or poorly designed studies.
• Explaining is about coming up with viable reasons as
objectively and unbiased as possible.
 TYPES OF RESEARCH
At the most basic level, research in science can
be split into two types:-
1. Pure research
2. Applied research
• Both types of research follow the same
structures and protocols for propagating and
testing hypotheses and predictions but vary
slightly in their ultimate purpose.
PURE SCENTIFIC RESEARCH/FUNDAMENTAL
RESEARCH
• Pure science is about explaining the world
around us and trying to understand how the
universe operates.
• It is about trying to understand the underlying
principles of existence.
• asic research discovers the underlying
processes and systems that make a plant,
animal, ecosystem, food system, community,
or marketplace work.
• For example pure research into the structure
of the atom has led to x-rays
• basic research might seek to discover the
genetic map of a plant or animal, or show how
economic and human resources affect
economic growth in rural areas, study which
foods decrease the risk of disease in humans.
 APPLIED RESEARCH
• Applied research looks for answers for specific
questions that help humanity.
• The research results are of immediate practical use
and are also of an economic value.
• The research generally takes a specific question and
tries to find a definitive and comprehensive answer.
• Here, researchers might use a genetic map to develop
gene therapies to treat human diseases or develop
new programs to enhance community capital and
stability in rural communities.
• Other examples of applied research:-

– Saline - water-based agriculture

– New varieties of long-shelf-life tomatoes
– Substrates for growing mushroom
– New ornamental crops and techniques for inducing flowering
– Processes for manufacturing biotechnological products from
algae
– Selection of Open Pollinated Varieties of maize suitable for
Malawi
 THE RESEARCH PROCESS

• a research process, consisting of stages or

steps that guide the project from its
conception through the final analysis,
recommendations, and ultimate action.
• The research process provides a systematic,
planned approach to the research project
and ensures that all aspects of the research
project are consistent with each other.
• It is important that the research design and
implementation be consistent with research
purpose and objective.
1. AGREE ON THE RESEARCH PROCESS
• Problem recognition and definition.
• A problem is a gap between what was
supposed to happen and what did happen;
difference between the objective and
accomplishment.
Knowing where and when the gap or problem
occurred.
• Once a problem is defined, it is easier to
approach the cause and the solution, in
accordance with the level of detail of the
analysis.
• Exploratory research (e.g. literature review,
talking to people, and focus group discussion)
assist in clarifying the objectives.
 2. ESTABLISH RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

• The research objective is a statement, in as

precise terminology as possible, of what
information is needed.
• Research objectives have three components:
– i. The research question
– ii. Development of the hypotheses
– iii. The scope or boundaries of the research
• These can be in the form of research
questions.
• The research question can be stated as a
hypothesis.
• A hypothesis is an investigator’s belief about a
problem.
The research question:
• Can the introduction of bio-fertilisers provide farmers
with alternative fertiliser which is affordable, and at the
same time has improved yield, and improve on soil
fertility
Research objectives:

• i. To assess the yield increase due to the use of

bio-fertilisers on pearl millet, mahangu
• ii. To compare the growth pattern of mahangu
due to application of biofertilisers, e.g. plant
height, reduction in time to heading and silking
• iii. To quantify and characterise the improvement
in soil characteristics due to biofertilisers.
• iv. To do an economic analysis on the production
costs when using biofertilisers
• Hypotheses
– i. There is a significant improvement in the yield of
maize due to application of biofertiliser
– ii. Application of biofertilisers significantly reduces
time to heading and silking in maize
– iii. Biofertilisers increase soil macro and micro-
nutrients ratio, micro-organisms-fungi and
bacteria group ratios.
– iv. Use of biofertilisers significantly reduces the
cost of inputs in the production of maize.
• RESEARCH BOUNDARIES
– It is important to indicate the scope of the
research, the limitations and assumptions.
– What are the geographical area to be considered,
the environmental factors, the variety, and the
time period the research was done.
– The research was carried at NRC, where the soil
types are.........., the rainfall pattern
is ....................... using the maize variety SC 403.
 3. ESTIMATE THE VALUE OF INFORMATION (IS BENEFIT>COST?)

• The amount of resources needed to do the

research should be quantified.
• Human resources (field labour, technical
expertise), material ( equipment,
consumables), time and financial.
• Is the information gathered beneficial or not,
does it justify such expenditure or not.
 4. DESIGN THE RESEARCH

• There is no one best method for research for all situations

but rather a wide variety of techniques for the researcher
to choose from.
• Often the selection of a technique involves a series of
trade-offs, cost and quality of information obtained; time
and budgetary constraints. Three basic methods of
research are:
– i. Survey (most common in social sciences and economics)
– ii. Observation (psychologists often use one way mirrors to
study behaviour)
– iii. Experiment (investigator changes one or more variables
during the research, manipulating the conditions.
• It is difficult to control all the variables in the
environment, so variables have to be weighed
and assessed for the amount of effect they
might have on the result and an appropriate
experimental design is chosen e.g. completely
randomised design (CRD), randomised
complete block design (RCBD) etc.)
 5. COLLECT DATA

• clearly define the target population.

• The population is defined in line with the
objectives
• When the population is sufficiently small, the
researcher can include the entire population
in the study, this type of research becomes a
census study because data is gathered on
every member of the population.
• Usually a population is too large for the
researcher to attempt to study all the
members, then a small but carefully selected
sample can be used to represent the
population.
• The sample reflects the characteristics of the
population from which it is drawn, it is good
representation of the population.
 6. PREPARE AND ANALYZE THE DATA
• Data analysis is a set of methods and techniques that
can be used to obtain information and insights from
the data.
• Data analysis is important because:-
– i. It can lead to the researcher to information and insights
that otherwise would not be available from raw data
– ii. It can help avoid erroneous judgments and conclusions
– iii. It can provide background to help interpret and
understand analysis conducted by others
– iv. Data analysis can constructively influence research
objectives and conclusions.
• N.B although data analysis is powerful, it
cannot rescue a badly conceived research
study. Data analysis cannot compensate for
an inadequate sampling procedure, or sloppy
field work.
• Inappropriate or misused data analysis can
also ruin a well-designed study.
• Modern computer software has made analysis
of quantitative data a very easy task.
• However each statistical technique has its own
assumptions and limitations.
• Complex analysis can be used but be weary of
the use and interpretation of such output.
• Factors that influence the choice of an
appropriate statistical technique:-
– i. Type of data
– ii. Research design
– iii. Assumptions underlying the test statistic
7. REPORT THE RESEARCH RESULTS AND PROVIDE STRATEGIC RECOMMENDATIONS

• The most important consideration in

preparing any research report is the nature of
the audience.
• The purpose is to communicate information,
and therefore the report should be prepared
specifically for the readers of the report.
• a report should contain an abstract, problem
statement, materials and method, results and
discussion, and a list of references.
 4. LITERATURE REVIEW

• What is a review of the literature?

– A literature review is an account of what has been published on a
topic by accredited scholars and researchers.
– Often it is part of the introduction to an essay, research report, or
thesis.
– In writing the literature review, your purpose is to convey to your
reader what knowledge and ideas have been established on a
topic, and what their strengths and weaknesses are.
– As a piece of writing, the literature review must be defined by a
guiding concept e.g., your research objective, the problem or
issue you are discussing.
– It is not just a descriptive list of the material available, or a set of
summaries.
• literature review lets you gain and
demonstrate skills in two areas:
– information seeking: the ability to scan the
literature efficiently, using manual or
computerized methods, to identify a set of useful
articles and books
– critical appraisal: the ability to apply principles of
analysis to identify unbiased and valid studies.
• A literature review must do these things:
– be organized around and related directly to the
research question you are developing
– synthesize results into a summary of what is and is
not known
– identify areas of controversy in the literature
– formulate questions that need further research
• Ask yourself questions like these:
1. What is the specific problem, or research
question that my literature review helps to
define?
2. What type of literature review am I
conducting?
3. What is the scope of my literature review?
4. How good was my information seeking?
5. Have I critically analyzed the literature I
use?
7. Have I cited and discussed studies contrary
to my perspective?
8. Will the reader find my literature review
relevant, appropriate, and useful?
 5. BUDGETING AND SCHEDULING OF THE RESEARCH PROJECT

• Decisions regarding the allocation of resources -

i.e. time, money and human resources form an
important part of planning for a research project.
• The cost- benefit analysis that precedes the
research design phase gives the researcher a
preliminary idea of the value of the project.
• After deciding that the benefits exceed the costs,
only then can we proceed to the research design
stage.
 Budgeting
• There are two common approaches to
budgeting:
– Estimating the dollar costs associated with each
research activity
– Determining the activities to be performed in
hours and then apply the standard cost estimates
to these hours.
• Example of a budget
ITEM Amount require N$ Comments
Personnel
technical
casual labour
Equipment
Materials and consumables
Glassware
Chemicals
Travel and subsistence
Transport
Per diem
TOTAL COST
SCHEDULING OF RESEARCH ACTIVITIES
• Scheduling helps to identify who is responsible
for accomplishing which research activity
within what time period.
• It identifies the personnel accountable for a
particular task, it also provides a time frame
during which a task has to be accomplished.
Several techniques are used for scheduling a
research project:
– GANTT charts
– The critical path method (CPM)
– The program evaluation and review technique
(PERT)
– Graphical evaluation and review techniques
(GERT)
 6. Basic contents of a research proposal

1. Executive summary
• A brief overview of the contents of the proposal.
• This may be the only part some people read, so
it should be sufficient to give them a basic
understanding of the project aims.
2. Research purpose and objective
• A description of the problem definition, defining
the information to be obtained in terms of the
research questions to be answered.
3. Research design
• It presents the important features of the
research methods to be used, such as sample
size, experimental design, number of treatments
to be compared, data collection method,
proposed statistical analysis methods to be used.
4. Expected data analysis
• It explains the package used to analyze data eg
LSD
5. Time and cost
• Include budget and time frame for every
activities of the project which is put at the
appendix.
Introduction to statistical principles: