BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Wireless & Mobile

Communication
(CSI
ZG520) Faculty : JIBIN.
N
[email protected]

23/05/2025 n 2
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
IMP Note to
Students
 Attending the session means staying until the end; logging in alone does
not count as attendance.
 Active participation is encouraged—engage in discussions and respond to
the professor’s queries.
 When your name or number is called, please respond promptly, as non-
response will be considered an absence.
 Weekly quizzes and timely submission of assignments are essential for
successful course completion.

Your participation is valuable—stay engaged and make the session

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Modular
Structure
Mod # Module Title Mod # Module Title

Introduction to Wireless Systems and Modern Modulation Techniques for Mobile Radio - Amplitude
M1 M9
Wireless Communication System Modulation

Modulation Techniques for Mobile Radio - Angle

M2 The Cellular Concept - System Design Fundamentals M10
Modulation
M3 Cellular Network M11 Digital Modulation Techniques - Part 1
Mobile Radio Propagation: Large Scale Path Loss -
M4 M12 Digital Modulation Techniques - Part 2
Part 1
Mobile Radio Propagation: Large Scale Path
M5 M13 Equalization & Diversity Techniques
Loss - Part 2
Mobile Radio Propagation: Large Scale Path Loss -
M6 M14 Concepts of OFDM & MIMO
Part 3
M7 Small Scale Fading - Part 1 M15 Multiple Access Techniques
M8 Small Scale Fading - Part 2 M16 Wireless Networking
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
 BITS Pilani

Contact Session #05

Mobile Radio Propagation: Large Scale Path
Loss- Part 2
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
CS #04 | RECAP-
#01
Wave Propagation in Wireless Systems
Line of Sight
📡 Wireless Communication Basics (LOS)

 Transmission via electromagnetic waves – no physical connection. Fresnel

Zone
Line of Sight
 Carried using: Radio waves, Microwaves, Infrared.
🟦 How Waves Carry Information
 Modulate Amplitude, Frequency, or Phase.
 Wider bandwidth ⇒ more data; shorter wavelength ⇒ smaller antennas.
🟨 Why Understanding Propagation Matters
 To optimize coverage, save power, and reduce errors.
 Wireless channels are influenced by terrain, obstacles, motion, and atmospheric
conditions. BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
CS #04 | RECAP-
#02
Core Propagation Mechanisms
🟧 Three Main Behaviours
Non Line of Sight (NLOS)

1.Reflection – Bounce off large objects (e.g., walls/buildings). Fresnel Zone

Line of Sight
2.Diffraction – Bend around obstacles (e.g., rooftops).
3.Scattering – Spread from small objects (e.g., foliage, signs).
🟦 Modelling Propagation
• Helps predict signal strength and performance issues.
• Vital for urban planning, base station placement, coverage design.
🟩 Real-World Relevance
• WiFi, cellular, satellite, and TV signals experience these effects daily.
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
CS #04 | RECAP-
#03
Free-Space Model & Path Loss Concepts
📏 Free-Space Propagation Model
 Ideal condition: clear Line-of-Sight (LOS) between transmitter and receiver.
 Used in microwave links, satellite phones.
 Based on Friis Transmission Equation:

📘 Key Terms
• EIRP – Effective Isotropic Radiated Power.
• dB, dBm, dBW – Logarithmic units to measure signal levels and power loss.
• Path Loss – Signal reduction over distance (measured in dB).
🟩 Reference Distance (d₀) – Starting point to evaluate signal strength decay.
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Agenda | CS
#05
Phase Code Topic / Activity Reference

Pre-CS RL_3.2.2 Fresnel Zone and Knife Edge Diffraction Model T1: Chapter 4

RL_3.3.1 Practical Link Budget Design using Path Loss Model

Summary of recorded lectures: Two-ray Ground Reflected

During CS CS 5.0 Model, Fresnel Zone Geometry, Knife Edge Diffraction Model,

Practical Link Budget Design using Path Loss Model

Post-CS HW 5 T1: Problems – 4.9, 4.10, 4.17, 4.18

MATLAB Experiment: Ground Reflected Model, Knife-edge

LE 5
Diffraction (CS 5.0)
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Introducti
In this Session we will discus how radio signals behave in complex outdoor environments — around
on
terrain, buildings, and other real-world obstructions.
Key Concepts We’ll Cover:
 Fresnel Zones – Why clearance matters for reliable signal strength.
 Knife-Edge Diffraction – How waves bend around obstacles and how we quantify the loss.
 Link Budget Design – Using practical models to estimate how much power is needed to maintain
good signal reception.
Why It’s Important:
These concepts are fundamental for:
 Designing wireless networks
 Ensuring coverage in urban/rural settings
 Planning base station locations and estimating signal loss

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Fresnel
Zone
The Fresnel Zone is a three-dimensional elliptical region around the direct line-of-sight (LOS)
path between a transmitter and receiver. Line of Sight (LOS)

Fresnel Zone

Line of Sight

It represents the space where radio waves may travel, not just in a straight line, but along slightly curved paths due to diffraction.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Fresnel Zone obstructed by
 When an object like a tree, building, or hill intrudes into the Fresnel Zone, it causes Non-Line-
Obstacle
of-Sight (NLOS) conditions.
 This results in signal diffraction, phase shifts, or destructive interference.

Non Line of Sight (NLOS)

Fresnel Zone

Line of Sight

d1 d2
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Best Practices
 The first Fresnel zone is the region where
the transmission energy is the most
intense.
 The obstruction in the Fresnel zone should
be as little as possible.
 When planning a new link try to maintain
good clearance between two stations,
avoiding obstruct the first Fresnel zone.
 At least 55% of the first Fresnel zone
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Fresnel Zone Radius –
📐 Formula to Calculate Fresnel Zone
Formula
Radius:
Parameters Explained:
This formula helps
 Fn​: Radius of the nᵗʰ Fresnel Zone (in meters) calculate the
clearance needed
 d1​: Distance from transmitter to point P
around the Line of
Sight to ensure
 d2​: Distance from receiver to point P
minimum
 λ: Wavelength of the transmitted signal (in meters) interference.

 n: Fresnel Zone number (typically, n = 1 is the most BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
🧩
Problem:
A radio link operates at a frequency of

900 MHz.

At a point P between the transmitter and receiver:

 Distance from the transmitter to point P: 1 km

 Distance from the receiver to point P: 2 km

 Calculate the radius of the 3rd Fresnel zone at BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Given:
 Frequency f=900 MHz
 Distance d1=1000 m

 Distance d2=2000 m
 Speed of light c= 3×108 m/s
 n: Fresnel Zone number n = 3

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Diffractio
n Phenomena: Radio signal can propagate around the
curved surface of the earth, beyond the horizon and
behind obstructions.
 Huygen’s principle: All points on a wavefront can be
considered as point sources for the production of
secondary wavelets and these wavelets combine to
produce a new wavefront in the direction of
propagation.
 The field strength of a diffracted wave in the
shadowed region is the vector sum of the electric field
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Knife Edge Diffraction
Estimating signal attenuation due
Model to knife edge diffraction

"When a direct line-of-

sight path is blocked,
the wave travels over
the top of the
obstacle, following a
longer curved path
from the transmitter
to the receiver."

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Path Difference in Due to Obstacles
When a wave encounters a sharp obstacle (like a mountain or a tall
building), the wave bends around the edge. This creates a longer path
than the direct line-of-sight.
Geometry:
 d₁ = distance from the transmitter (T) to the obstacle
 d₂ = distance from the obstacle to the receiver (R)
 h = height of the obstacle above the direct path
📏 Path difference
(δ):
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
For small h compared to d₁ and d₂, using
approximation:

This extra distance (δ) affects the phase of the signal, which impacts how strong or
weak the received signal will be.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Phase Difference and Diffraction
Parameter
✅ Phase Difference (ϕ):

The phase shift due to extra distance

(δ) is:

Where:
• λ = wavelength of the signal
• ϕ = phase difference between the direct and diffracted waves

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

✅ Approximate Slope Angle:

 It's the angle made by the wavefront as it travels over an obstacle

(like a hill or knife-edge).

 It depends on the height of the obstacle (h) and distances d₁ and

d₂ (from transmitter and receiver).

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
🌀 Fresnel Diffraction
Parameter (v)
📘
Equation:

The parameter v is called the Fresnel diffraction parameter.

It helps us quantify how much diffraction occurs when a wave passes
over an obstacle (like a mountain or a building) and is critical in
calculating signal loss in non-line-of-sight conditions.
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
📐 What Each Term
Means

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

✅ Phase Difference (ϕ):

The phase shift in terms of Fresnel Diffraction

parameter 
 v2
2

 ϕ (phi): Phase difference caused by extra travel due to diffraction

 v: Fresnel diffraction parameter
 This shows how phase delay depends directly on how much the wave
bends around the obstacle
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
The concentric circles on the plane are
Fresnel Zones.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Fresnel Zone Radius & Path
Difference
The radius of the nth Fresnel zone
circle Where:

nd1d 2 • rn​= radius of the nth Fresnel zone

rn   n • n = zone number (1st, 2nd, 3rd…)
d1  d 2
• λ = wavelength
• d1, d2 = distances from transmitter and receiver to the
point of obstruction

 The radius increases with √n, meaning higher zones get wider.
 The 1st Fresnel zone is the most important — it should ideally be clear of
obstacles for strong signal reception

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

The extra distance travelled through
each zone is:

First Fresnel Zone must be kept clear for strong signal

reception!

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Diffraction - Fresnel zones (cont.)

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Knife-Edge Diffraction
Geometry
Sometimes, an obstacle like a hill or building blocks the direct path between a transmitter and
receiver. In such cases, the wave bends around the obstacle — a phenomenon called diffraction.

🧩 Key Terms:
 T – Transmitter (sending signal)
 R – Receiver (in shadow zone)
 h – Height of the obstacle
 d₁, d₂ – Distances from transmitter and receiver to
the obstacle
 Huygens' Principle – Every point on a wavefront
acts as a tiny wave source; these tiny waves bend
around edges
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
How Much Signal is Lost Due to Bending
(Diffraction)?
 When v Fresnel
Diffraction Parameter is
small or negative:
Signal is strong (little or
no loss)
 As v increases: The
signal becomes weaker
 Beyond v > 2.4: Loss is
significant due to heavy
diffraction
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Lee’s Approximate Solution for
Gd(v)
Calculating exact diffraction loss is hard. Lee’s approximation gives us a quick way to
estimate the signal loss based on the value of v.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Multiple Knife-Edge
Diffraction
🔁 Replace the two real obstacles with one imaginary obstruction that causes the same
total effect on the signal.
This is called the Single Equivalent Knife Edge (SEKE).

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

📘 What is
Scattering?
Scattering happens when a wave hits lots of small objects or rough surfaces that are much smaller than
the wavelength of the wave.

When does it happen?

 When the medium (like air or a street) is filled with tiny obstacles.
 These objects are smaller than the wavelength of the signal.
 It’s common in urban areas where there are many objects close together.

Examples of Scattering Sources:

 Street signs
 Lamp posts
 Trees
 Small uneven surfaces like gravel roads
Scattering can randomly redirect parts of the signal, affecting how clearly it reaches the receiver. It’s
important to account for this when designing reliable networks.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Rayleigh
Criterion

📘 What is the Rayleigh Criterion?

It tells us whether a surface is smooth or rough — based on how the wave

hits it.

Why does it matter?

Whether a surface is rough or smooth affects how waves reflect:

 Smooth → clean reflection

 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Rayleigh Formula:

Where:
 hc: Critical surface height (the threshold between smooth and

rough)
 λ: Wavelength of the wave
 θi​: Angle at which the wave hits the surface
How to Use It:
• If actual surface height h ≤ hc​→ the surface is
smooth
• If h>hc​→ the surface is rough, and scattering
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Radar cross section model

The radar cross section (RCS) of a scattering object is defined as the ratio
of the power density of the signal scattered in the direction of the
receiver to the power density of the radio wave incident upon the
scattering object and has units of square meters."

Bistatic radar
equation

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

📶 Log-Distance Path Loss
Model
Path Loss models to estimate the received signal level as a function of distance, it is
possible to predict the SNR for a mobile communication.
The average signal power received decreases logarithmically with distance.

PL(d)
PL(dB)= PL(d0) +10 nlog(d/d0)

d- distance between the transmitter and receiver

d0-Close-in reference distance

n- Path loss exponent which indicates rate at which the pass loss increases
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Log-Normal Shadowing
Model
In real-world wireless communication, the signal doesn't just weaken with
distance — it also fluctuates due to buildings, trees, and other obstacles.
This variation is called shadowing.
To model this, we use:

 Average path loss at distance d

 PL(d0): Path loss at a reference distance d0d_0d0​
 n: Path loss exponent
 Xσ​: Zero-mean Gaussian random variable representing signal variation
(shadowing), with standard deviation σ in dB

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

 Q-function Definition:

The Q-function gives the probability that a normal

(Gaussian) variable is greater than a given value.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Probability That Signal Exceeds Threshold γ:

This gives the probability that the received power Pr​(d) is greater than

a threshold γ at distance d, considering random variations due to

shadowing. BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Determination of Percentage of Coverage
Area
We want to calculate the percentage of area where the received signal is above a
certain threshold γ.

R: Radius of the circular coverage area

U(γ): Fraction of the total area covered with
signal > γ

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Coverage Probability vs. Shadowing
Variation (σ/n)

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Problem
s
Calculate the Brewster angle for a wave impinging on ground having a
permittivity of r = 4

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
IMP Note to Self

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus