variables and data presentation

• Dr.Nadia Elemam
Variable

• An item of data
• Examples:
– gender
– test scores
– weight
• Value varies from one observation to
another
What are the 7 types of variables in
research?
• Independent & dependent variables,
Active and attribute variables, Continuous,
discrete and categorical variable,
Extraneous variables and Demographic
variables
Variables
• The dependent variable is the variable that
the researcher measures; it is called a
dependent variable because it depends
upon (is caused by) the independent
variable.

• The independent variable is the one that

the researcher manipulates.
Variables

• Qualitative Variable: Composed of categories which

are not comparable in terms of magnitude
• Quantitative Variable: Can be ordered with respect to
magnitude on some dimension
• Continuous Variable: A quantitative variable, which
can be measured with an arbitrary degree of precision.
Any two points on a scale of a continuous variable
have an infinite number of values in between. It is
generally measured.
• Discrete Variable: A quantitative variable where
values can differ only by well-defined steps with no
intermediate values possible. It is generally counted.
Types/Classifications of Variables
• Qualitative
• Quantitative
– Discrete
– Continuous
Qualitative Data
• Describes the quality
• Non-numerical format
Counts
Cannot order or measure
• Examples
– gender
– marital status
– geographical region
– job title….
Categorical data

• Non-overlapping categories or
characteristics
• Examples:
– Completes/Incompletes
– Professions
– Gender
Quantitative Data

• Frequencies
• Measurements
Discrete

• Measurements are integers

• Examples:
– number of employees of a company
– number of incorrect answers on a test
– number of participants in a program…
Continuous

• Measurements can take on any value -

usually within some range
• Examples:
– Age
– Income
• Arithmetic operations such as differences
and averages make sense.
Qualitatiave or Quantitative?
Discrete or Continuous?
• Score on a placement exam
• Preferred restaurant
• Dollar amount of a loan
• Height
• Salary
• Length of time to complete a task
• Number of applicants
• Ethnic origin
Treatment as Ranks
• Natural order
• Not strictly measured
• Examples:
– Age group
– Likert Scale data
• Distinction between adjacent points on the
scale is not necessarily the same
Analysis
Qualitative Data
• Frequency tables
• Modes - most frequently occurring
• Graphs: Bar Charts and Pie Charts
Analysis
Quantitative Data
• Any form
• Create groups or categories and generate
frequency tables
• All descriptive statistics
Effective Graphs:
Quantitative Data
• Histograms
• Stem-and-Leaf plots
• Dot Plots
• Box plots
• XY Scatter Plots (2 variables).
Examples of Graphs
Pie Chart

Performance Appraisals

10%

38% More Difficult

Difficult
14%

Same
Much Easier
Easier

33%
90
80
70
60
50 East
40 West
30 North
20
10
0
1st Qtr 2nd Qtr 3rd Qtr 4th Qtr
Histogram

Histogram

12
10
F re q u e n c y

8
6
4
2
0
49 59 69 79 89 99
Score
Boxplot

Boxplot of C1

20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110

C1
Stem and Leaf Plot

Stem and Leaf Plot

Weight of Meat

7 5
8 3
8 7999
9 23
9 66789
10
10 688
11 2244
11 788
12 4
12 8
13
13 8
14 1
Analyze Ranked Data
• Frequency tables
• Mode, Median, Quartiles
• Graphs:
– Bar Charts
– Dot Plots, Pie Charts
– Line Charts (2 variables)
Data Example
Suggest some ways you could analyze these
items.

• Score on a placement exam

• Preferred restaurant
• Dollar amount of a loan
• Height
• Salary
• Length of time to complete a task
• Number of applicants
• Ethnic origin
Tables and Graphs

Note Excel will create any graph that you

specify

Consider the type of data before selecting

your graph.
Frequency Table/Frequency
Distribution
Summarize data:
• categorical
• nominal
• Continuous data - the data set has been
divided into meaningful groups
Frequency Distribution

Count the number of observations that fall

into each category.

Frequency: the number associated with

each category
Relative Frequency Distribution

Proportion of observations falling in a given

category

Report relative frequencies or percentages

Example
Frequency Distribution

No. of Defective Parts n

0 &< 2 0
2 4 4
4 6 5
6 8 12
8 10 14
10 12 9
12 14 10
14 16 6
Graphs
Categorical/Qualitative Data
Pie Charts

Circle - divided Viet Swedish

proportionately Namese 5%
15%

English
Spanish 55%
Segment - percentage of 25%
the whole that falls into
each category Native Language
Bar Charts

Bar charts - % in various

categories Ave ra ge Units Sold (pe r pe r s on) by P roduc t

Vertical scale - 20

frequencies, relative 15

Ave rage Sold/Pe rs on

frequencies 10

5
Horizontal scale - Before Training
A fter Training
0
categories B41 BA 42 B41F C21 Other

Product
Allows comparisons
Constructing Bar Charts
• All boxes should have the same width
• Gaps between the boxes - no connection
between
• Any order.
• Use to represent two categorical variables
simultaneously
Graphs: Measured
Continues Quantitative Data
• Histograms
• Stem and Leaf
• Box plots
• Line Graphs
• XY Scatter Charts (2 variables)
Histograms

Frequency Grade Distribution

distributions of 12
10
continuous variables

Frequency
8
6
Drawn without gaps 4
2

between the bars 0

59 69 79 89 99
Grade
Constructing Histograms

Non-overlapping
intervals Grade Distribution

Intervals - generally 12
10
the same length
Frequency
8
6
Number of values in 4
2
each interval -class 0
59 69 79 89 99
Grade

frequency
Relative frequencies o
XY Scatter Chart

Two variables
Abscent by Age
Variables: quantitative and
20
continuous.
15
Plot pairs - rectangular
10
DaysAbsent
coordinate system 5

Examine the relationship 0

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
between two variables Age
Line Chart

Similar to the scatter

chart 1997 Monthly Sales

Values of the 170

165
independent variable 160

Sales (x$10,000)
155

(shown on the 150

145

horizontal axis) can be 140

135

ranked values (i.e.. 130

125

J an

J une
they do not have to be

Feb

Mar

Apr

May
Month
continuous variables).
Basic Principles for Constructing All
Plots
• Data should stand out clearly from
background
• The information should be clearly labeled
– title
– axes, bars, pie segments, etc. - include units
that are needed to interpret data
– scale including starting points.
Principles cont.

• Source
• No clutter
• Minimize information or data on one
graph.
• Try several approaches
Describing Data
• Shape of the Distribution
– Symmetry
– Skewness
– Modality: most frequently occurring value
– Unimodal or bimodal or uniform
Right Skewed Left Skewed

Histogram Histogram

12 12
10 10
Frequency

Frequency
8 8
6 6
4 4
2 2
0 0
59 69 79 89 99 59 69 79 89 99
Grade Grade

Histogram

12
10
Frequency

8
6
4 Symmetrical
2
0
59 69 79 89 99
Grade
Describing Data
• Centrality
• Spread
• Extreme values
Measures of Centrality

• Mean
• Median
• Mode
Mean

• Most common measure

• Extremely large values in a data set will
increase the value of the mean
• Extremely low values will decrease it.
Calculating the
Mean

T1 T2 T3
85 85 85
90 90 90
75 35 75
90 90 110
340 300 360 Sum
85 75 90 Mean
Median

• Central point .
• Half of the data has a value than the
median
• Half of the data has a higher value than
the median
• Not affected by extremely large or small
values
Find the Median

85 90 75 92 95 Data

75 85 90 92 95 Sorted Data

Median is 90.
Find the Median

95 90 92 85 Data

85 90 92 95 Sorted Data

Median:
(90 + 92)/2 = 91
Measures of Spread
Range

• Subtract the smallest value from the

largest
• Report the smallest and largest values.

85 90 75 92 95 Scores
Range: 75 to 95
or 20
Variance/Standard Deviation

• Average variation of the data values from

the mean of the values
• Variance.
The Empirical Rule
• Symmetrical Data
• At least:
68% of the data values are within one standard
deviation of the mean
90% of the data values are within two standard
deviation of the mean
99% of the data values are within three
standard deviations of the mean
Tchybychef’s Inequality
• Skewed Data
• At least:
75% of the data values are within two standard
deviation of the mean.
90% of the data values are within one standard
deviation of the mean.
Measures of Relative Standing
• Percentiles

• Quartiles
Quartiles
• The lower quartile is the same as the 25th
percentile.
– 25% of the scores are lower and
– 75% of the scores are higher than the lower
quartile.
• The upper quartile is the same as the 75th
percentile.
– 75% of the scores are lower and
Correlation

Describes the strength of the relationship

between two (or more) variables

Pearson Product-moment Correlation

Coefficient - assumes continuous
quantitative data
Relationship between Variables
• Positive
• Negative
• No relationship.
Interpreting Correlation Coefficients.

• 0.20 to 0.35- show a slight relationship

(little value in practical prediction situations)
• 0.50 - crude group prediction
(Correlations this low do not suggest a good
relationship)
• 0.65 to 0.85 - group predictions that are good
• Over 0.85 - a close relationship between the two
variables.
 Even a high correlation
coefficient does not establish
a cause and effect
relationship!!!!!
Coefficient of Determination

• Square root of the correlation coefficient

• Gives the percent of variation in the
dependent variable that is ‘explained’ by
the independent variable.
• Look at an XY scatter plot
Least Square Line

• Describe the relationship between the two

variables
• Make predictions of the dependent
variable from the independent variable
Positive Relationship

r will be a positive
8
7 number.
6
5
4
Y

3
2
1
0
0 2 4 6
X
Negative Relationship

8
r will be a negative
7 number.
6
5
4
Y

3
2
1
0
0 2 4 6
X