SAMPLE & SAMPLING

TECHNIQUE
By
Mrs. Sharmila Ghodke
 INTRODUCTION
• Sampling is a process of selecting representative units
from an entire population of a study.

• It is a process of obtaining information regarding a

phenomenon about entire population by examining a part
of it.
 Terminologies used in sampling
• Population: is the aggregation of all the units in which a
researcher is interested. It is the set of people or entities to
which the results of research are to be generalized.

• Target population: consists of the total number of people

or objects which are meeting the designated set of criteria.
 Terminologies used in sampling
• Accessible population: is the aggregate of cases that
conform to designated criteria and are also accessible as
subjects for a study.

• Sampling: is the process of selecting a representative

segment of the population under study.
 Terminologies used in sampling
• Sample: is a representative unit of a target population,
which is to be worked upon by researchers during their
study.

• Element: the individual entities that comprise the samples

& population are known as elements.
 Terminologies used in sampling
• Sampling frame: is a list of the elements or subjects in
the population from which the sample is drawn. It is
prepared by researcher or existing frame may be used.

• Sampling error: there may be fluctuations in the values

of the statistics of characteristics from one sample to
another or even those drawn from same population.
 Terminologies used in sampling
• Sampling bias: distortion that arises when a sample is not
representative of the population from which it was drawn.

• Sampling plan: formal plan specifying a sampling

method, sample size & the procedure of selecting the
subjects.
 Purposes of sampling

• Economical: saves time, money & resources/material

• Improved quality of data:
• Quick study results:
• Precision & accuracy of data:
 Characteristics of good sample

• Representative
• Free from bias & errors
• No substitution & incompleteness
• Appropriate sample size
 Sampling process
Identifying &
Specifying
defining the Determine
sample selection
target sample size
methods
population

Describe
accessible Selecting a
Specifying Specify
population & desire sample
sampling unit sampling plan
ensure sampling
frame
Factors influencing sampling process

Nature of researcher Nature of sample Circumstances

• Inexperienced • Inappropriate sampling • Lack of time
investigator technique • Large geographic area
• Lack of interest • Sample size • Lack of co-operation
• Lack of honesty • Defective sampling • Natural calamities
• Intensive workload frame
• Inadequate supervision
Types of sampling techniques

Probability Non probability

sampling sampling
 Probability sampling techniques

• It is also known as random sampling or chance sampling.

• Probability sampling refers to the selection of a sample
from a population, when this selection is based on the
principle of randomization, that is, random selection or
chance.
Features of probability sampling
• Gives all individuals in population equal chances of being
selected.
• Each individual has an equal opportunity for selection.
• Absence of systematic & sampling bias.
• If random selection is done properly, the sample is
representative of the entire population.
Types of probability
sampling
Simple random sampling

Stratified random sampling

Systemic random sampling

Cluster/Multi stage sampling

Sequential sampling
Simple random sampling technique
• In this, every member of population has an equal chance
of being selected as subject.
• Population must be homogenous; sampling frame must.
• Types of simple random sampling
• Lottery method
• Use of table of random numbers
• Use of computer
 STEPS

• Define the population

• Choose the sample size
•List the population
• Assign the numbers to the unit
• Finding random numbers
• Selecting the sample
 ADVANTAGES

• Easy to conduct
• High probability of achieving a representative sample
• Free from sampling error
• Meets assumptions of many statistical procedures
• Require minimal prior information of the population
• Equal and independent chance of selection to every element.
 DISADVANTAGES

• Require complete & up-to-date list of all members of population

• Contacting all members of the sample can be difficulty
• Expensive and time consuming
• Replacement of elements may be done if not being chosen.
 Stratified random sampling
• Used for heterogenous population
• A heterogenous population is divided into
sub-groups, called strata and a sample is
selected from each stratum in such a way
that units within strata are homogeneous.
• The strata is based on selected traits such
as age, gender, habitat, culture, and the
random selection of samples are done.
 Classification of stratified random
sampling
• Proportionate stratified random sampling: sample
chosen from each stratum is in proportion to the size of
total population.
• Disproportionate stratified random sampling: sample
chosen from each stratum is not in proportion to the size
of total population in that stratum.
 STEPS
• Defining the population
• Choosing the relevant stratification
• Listing the population
• Listing the population according to the chosen stratification
• Choosing your sample size
• Calculating a proportionate stratification [(sample size
/population size)*stratum size]
• Use a simple random or systematic sample to select sample.
 Advantages
• Ensures representation of all groups in a population.
• Comparison is possible between subgroups
• Higher statistical precision compared to simple random
sampling
• Can be kept small in size without loosing its accuracy
• More accurate sample
 Disadvantages
• Proportionate stratification requires accurate information
on the proportion of population in each stratum

• Time consuming
• It is very costly to prepare stratified list of all members
• Faulty classification can cause variability
 SYSTEMATIC RANDOM SAMPLING

• Systematic random sampling is the random sampling method that

requires selecting samples based on a system of intervals in a
numbered population. It’s also known as interval sampling.

• In this type every n th

sample is selected from the population where
n refers to the sampling interval.

• Formula: k=N/n
• For an example: If we have
a population (like, the teacher
of our department) total of 12
individuals and need 4
subjects. We first picks our
starting number, Then the
researcher picks our interval,
and the systemic selection of
sample is done.
 STEPS

• Create a list of population

• Select a beginning number
• Select an interval
• Gather a list of employees based on the interval number.
 ADVANTAGES

• Simple to draw sample

• Moderate cost & usage
• Less time consuming
• Suitable sampling frame can be identified easily greater
efficiency can be achieved
 DISADVANTAGES

• It is not truly random method because samples are pre-

determined

• Periodic ordering required

• Bias can occur
 Cluster/ Multistage sampling
• Itis done when simple random sampling is almost
impossible because of the size of the population.
• Cluster sampling means random selection of sampling
unit consisting of population element.
• This method is used in cases where the population
elements are scattered over wide area.
 Types

• One stage cluster sample

• Two stage cluster sample

 ADVANTAGES

• It is easier
• Less time consuming because field work is localized
• Operationally more convenient
• It can estimate characteristics of both cluster and population.
• Do not need the names of everyone in the population
For an example: The following is an example of implementation of multi-
stage sampling method once a state has been chosen as cluster sampling

• Random number of districts within the state needs to be selected as

primary clusters.

• Random number of villages within district needs to be selected as

secondary clusters.

• Ultimately a number of houses need to be selected as sampling unit to be

used in the study.
 Sequential sampling

• Sample size is not fixed

• The investigator initially selects small sample & tries out
to make inferences; if not able to draw results, he/she then
adds more subjects until clear cut inference can be drawn.
 Advantages

• Facilitate to conduct a study on best possible smallest

representative sample.

• Helping in ultimately finding the inferences of the study.

 Disadvantages

• It is not possible to study a phenomenon which need to be

studied at one point of time.

• Requires repeated entries into the field to collect the

sample.
NON-PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
• Non-probability sampling is defined as a sampling
technique in which the researcher selects samples based
on the subjective judgment of the researcher rather than
random selection.
In other words, in this type of sampling every subject
does not have equal chance to be selected because
elements are chosen by choice not by chance through
non-random sampling methods.

 Researchers use it widely for qualitative research.

Features of non-probability sampling
• Does not give all individuals in the population equal
chances of being selected.
• Samples are usually selected on the basis of their
accessibility, purpose, or by personal judgement of the
researcher.
• Results of the research cannot be used in generalizations
pertaining to the entire population.
 Uses of non-probability sampling
• When researcher aims to do a qualitative, pilot or
exploratory study.
• When randomization is not possible.
• When research does not aim to generate results that will
used in generalizations pertaining to the entire population.
• When researcher has limited budget, time and workforce.
• Used in an initial study (pilot study).
 Purposive sampling

Convenience sampling
Consecutive sampling
Quota sampling
TYPES
Snowball sampling
Event sampling
Time sampling
 PURPOSIVE SAMPLING
Purposive sampling is commonly known
as 'judgmental' or 'authoritative sampling’.
In this type of sampling, subjects are
chosen to be part of the sample with a
specific purpose in mind.
Samples are chosen by choice, through a
judgement made by researcher based on
his/her knowledge about the population.
 Uses

• Used when a limited number of individuals posses

the trait of interest
 Advantages

• Simple to draw sample and useful in explorative studies.

• Saves resources, requires less fieldwork.
 Disadvantages

• Requires considerable knowledge about population under

study.
• Not always reliable sample, bias may exists.
• Limit generalization of study results.
 CONVENIENCE SAMPLING

• Most common (easy, inexpensive)

• Samples are selected because of their
convenient accessibility & proximity
to the researcher.
 Advantages

• This technique is considered easiest, cheapest, and least

time consuming.

• Samples are readily available.

• Saves time, money and resources.
 Disadvantages

• Sampling bias may exist.

• Sample is not representative of the entire population.
• Findings cannot be generalized.
 CONSECUTIVE SAMPLING
• This is very similar to convenience sampling except that it
seeks to include all accessible subjects as a part of the sample.

• This is considered to be the best of all non-probability

samples as it includes all the subjects that are available, which
makes sample a better representation of the entire population.

• It is also known as total enumerative sampling.

 Advantages
• There is very little effort on the part of the researcher
when performing this sampling technique.

• It is not expensive, not time consuming, and not

workforce intensive.

• Ensures more representativeness of the selected sample.

 Disadvantages
• The researcher has no set plans about the sample size and
sampling schedule.
• It always does not guarantee the selection of
representative sample
• Results from this sampling technique cannot be used to
create conclusions and interpretations pertaining to the
entire population.
 QUOTA SAMPLING
• The researcher ensures equal or proportionate
representation of subjects, depending on
which trait is considered as the basis of the
quota.
• The basis of the quota are usually age, gender,
education, race, religion, and socio-economic
status.
• Similar to stratified random sampling, but
without random process from different quota.
 Advantages

• Economically cheap, as there is no need to approach all

the candidates.

• Suitable for studies where the fieldwork has to be carried

out, like studies related to market and public opinion
polls.
 Disadvantages
• Only the selected traits of the population were taken into
consideration while forming the subgroups. (sometimes
not representative)

• Not possible to estimate errors.

• Bias is possible, as investigator/interviewer can select
persons known to him.
 SNOWBALL SAMPLING
• Snowball sampling is used by the researchers
to identify potential subjects in studies where
subjects are hard to locate, such as
commercial sex workers, drug abusers, etc.
• This type of sampling works like a chain
referral.
• This is much like asking subjects to nominate
another person with same trait.
TYPES OF SNOWBALL SAMPLING
TECHNIQUE

Non-active

Active
 1. LINEAR SNOWBALL SAMPLING
• In this, each selected sample is asked to provide reference of only
one similar subject; where a linear chain is created by the
completion of desired sample.
 2. EXPONENTIAL NONDISCRIMINATIVE
SNOWBALL SAMPLING

In this, each sample member is asked to

provide reference of at least two similar

subjects, because of which the size of

the sample grows exponentially and a

large sample size can be achieved.

 3. EXPONENTIAL DISCRIMINATIVE
SNOWBALL SAMPLING
In this, initially one sample is selected and asked for two references of
similar subjects, out of which at least one subject must be active to
provide further references and another could be non active in
providing references.
Similarly, each active reference subject is further asked for two
references for similar subjects; out of them one should be active for
further references.
 Advantages

• The process is simple, cheap, and cost-efficient.

• This sampling technique requires lesser workforce and
little planning as compared to other methods.

• The chain referral process permits the researcher to reach

populations that are difficult to sample.
 Disadvantages
• The researcher has less control over the sampling method.
• Sample representativeness is not guaranteed.
• Possibility of sampling bias as initial subjects generally
nominate people who they are aware of.
 EVENT SAMPLING
• In Event sampling, the investigator is concerned only
with sampling from those specific occurrences or events
that are relevant to the study.

• For example to discover what provokes tantrums, or how

a child reacts to leaving their carer at the start of each day
in nursery.
 TIME SAMPLING
Used by researchers who are concerned with collecting data
on activities that takes place at specific times of the day.

e.g. A professor wants to measure how often one of the

student's is falling asleep during the lecture. The professor
decides to use momentary time sampling and will check if
the student's head is down at the end of 15 minute intervals.
•Any queries?
 REFERENCES

• C R Kothari’s “Research methodology methods and techniques, fourth

edition, newage’s publication ,page number 56-64

• Suresh k Sharma, ‘Nursing research and statistics’, third edition, Elsevier’s

publication page number 250-251
 GENEALOGY SAMPLING TECHNIQUE

• This is a non-probability sampling technique in which all the

members of entire related families are selected rather than
selecting the different households in the village or area.

• The genealogy sampling begins with identifying a first participant,

who is convinced to participate in the study and then further he/she
is asked to refer to close relatives of his family, who even may be
living in other areas of village or area.
 ADVANTAGES

• This sampling technique is useful in drawing a representative

sample from traditional rural communities, which are socio-
culturally and economically homogenous.

• Saves the time and efforts in locating the study subjects because
participants are identified through reference from previous
participants.
 DISADVANTAGES

• This sampling technique encounters problem of systematic errors

or bias.

• It lacks the diversity of sample participant characteristics because

subjects are selected from a family or related families. Thus, it has
limited usefulness.