DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

U20EET514 - CONTROL SYSTEMS

(Unit 1)
SYLLABUS

UNIT I MODELING OF LINEAR TIME INVARIANT SYSTEMS

(12 Hrs)

Control systems: Open loop and Closed loop – Transfer functions –

Feedback control system characteristics - Mathematical modeling of
Electrical and Electro-Mechanical systems - electrical analogues systems -
Block diagrams - Reduction Techniques - Signal flow graphs
System:

System - a number of elements or components are connected in a

sequence to perform a specific function, the group thus formed is
called a system.

The output quantity is controlled by varying the input quantity is

called control system.

The output quantity is called controlled variable or response and

input quantity is called command signal or excitation.
Open loop system:

Any physical system which does not automatically correct the variation in its output is
called an open loop system.


This means that the output is not feedback to the input for correction.


In open loop system, the output can be varied by the varying the input. But due to
external disturbance, the system output may change.


When the output changes due to disturbances, it is not followed by changes in input to
correct the output.


The changes in output are corrected by changing the input manually.
Open loop system:


Example 1 – Rotational generator

• The input to rotational generator is the speed of the prime mover (e.g steam turbine) in
r.p.m.
•Assuming the generator is on no load, the output may be induced voltage at the output
terminals.
Open loop system:


Example 2 – Washing machine


Most ( but not all ) washing machines are operated in the following manner. After the
clothes to be washed have been put into the machine, the soap or detergent, bleach and
water are entered in proper amounts as specified by the manufacturer.


The washing time is then set on a timer and the washer is energized.


When the cycle is completed, the machine shuts itself off. In this example washing time
forms input and cleanliness of the clothes is identified as output.
Closed loop system:


Control system in which the output has an effect upon the input quantity
in order to maintain the desired output value is called closed loop
system.


Basic components of an automatic control systems are, Reference input,
error detector, actuating signal, control elements, plants, feedback path
elements, controlled output forward path element
Closed loop system:

Control systems in which the output has the effect upon its input quantity in such a way
to maintain the desired output value are referred to as closed loop system.


Open loop system can be modified to a closed loop by providing a feedback.


This feedback automatically corrects the changes in output due to disturbances. Hence,
it is also called as automatic control system.
Concepts of closed loop control system:

Closed loop or feedback control operates according to a very simple principle.

1. Measure the variable to be controlled.
2. Compare this measured value with the desired value and determine the difference.
3. Use this difference to adjust the controlled variable so as to reduce the difference.
(error)
Closed loop control system:

EXAMPLE – 1 – THERMAL SYSTEM

•To illustrate the concept of closed loop control system, consider the thermal system
shown in fig.
•Here human being acts as a controller. He wants to maintain the temperature of the hot
water at a given value C. the thermometer installed in the hot water outlet measures the
actual temperature C0 C.
•This temperature is the output of the system.
Closed loop control system:

EXAMPLE – 1 – THERMAL SYSTEM

•If the operator watches the thermometer and finds that the temperature is higher than the
desired value, then he reduce the amount of steam supply in order to lower the
temperature.

•It is quite possible that that if the temperature becomes lower than the desired value it
becomes necessary to increase the amount of steam supply.

•This control action is based on closed loop operation which involves human being, hand
muscle, eyes, thermometer such a system may be called manual feedback system
Closed loop control system:
EXAMPLE –2 HOME HEATING SYSTEM
•The thermostatic temperature control in hour homes and public buildings is a familiar
example.
•An electronic thermostat or temperature sensor is placed in a central location usually on
inside wall about 5 feet from the floor.
•A person selects and adjusts the desired room temperature ( r ) say 250 C and adjusts the
temperature setting on the thermostat. A bimetallic coil in the thermostat is affected by the
actual room temperature ( c ).
•If the room temperature is lower than the desired temperature the coil strip alters the
shape and causes a mercury switch to operate a relay, which in turn activates the furnace
fire when the temperature in the furnace air duct system reaches reference level ' r ' a
blower fan is activated by another relay to force the warm air throughout the building.
When the room temperature ' C ' reaches the desired temperature ' r ' the shape of the coil
strip in the thermostat alters so that Mercury switch opens.
•This deactivates the relay and in turn turns off furnace fire, which in turn the blower.
Closed loop control system:
EXAMPLE –2 HOME HEATING SYSTEM
A change in out door temperature is a disturbance to the home heating system. If the out
side temperature falls, the room temperature will likewise tend to decrease.
Comparison between Open Loop & Closed Loop
System
S.No Open Loop System Closed Loop System
1 Feedback is absent. Feedback is present.
2 Simple and Economical Complex and Costly

3 It is easier to build. It is difficult to construct

In general it is more stable as the

4 Less stable comparatively
feedback is absent

Example: Example:
a) Traffic control system a) Pressure control system
5 b) Speed control system
b) Control of furnace for coal heating c)Robot control system
c) An electric washing machine d) Temperature control system

Changes in the output due to external

Changes in the output due to external
6 disturbances are not corrected
disturbances are corrected automatically
automatically
Advantages and disadvantages of open loop system:

Advantages of open loop:

Simpler and economical
Easier to construct
Stable

Disadvantages:
In accurate and un -reliable
The effect of eternal disturbances are not corrected automatically
Advantages and disadvantages of closed loop system:

Advantages of closed loop:

Accurate.
Even in the presence of non linearity’s.
Sensitivity is made small to make the system stable.
Less affected by noise.

Disadvantages:
Complex and costlier.
Feedback in closed loop may lead to oscillatory response.
Stability is major problem in closed loop system.
Mathematical model of control system
Mechanical translational system:
Force-balance equations of idealized elements:
Procedure to determine the transfer function of
mechanical translational system:


The differential equations governing the system is obtained by writing
force balance equations at the nodes in the system

Mass elements are considered as nodes in the system. In some
cases nodes may be with mass element (spring and dash-pot
combination)


Let as assign the linear displacement of the masses be x1, x2,… and
assign displacement to each mass node.


The first derivative of the displacement is velocity and the
second
derivative of the displacement is acceleration.


Draw the free body diagrams of the system.
Procedure – Cont.

The free body diagram is obtained by drawing each mass separately and then
marking all the forces acting on that mass (node).


The mass has to move in the direction of applied force and then the opposing
force acts in a direction opposite to applied force.


The displacement, velocity and acceleration of the mass will be in the direction
of the applied force.


If there is no applied force, the displacement, velocity and acceleration of the mass
in a direction opposite to that of applied force.
Procedure – Cont.


For each free body diagram, write on differential equation by equating the sum
of applied forces to the sum of opposing forces.

Take Laplace transform of differential equations to convert them to algebraic
equations.

Then rearrange the s-domain equations to eliminate the unwanted variables and
obtain ratio between output variable and input variable (transfer function).
Problem 1
Problem 1
Problem 1
Problem 1
Problem 1
Problem 1
Problem 2
Problem 2
Problem 2
Problem 2
Problem 2
Mechanical Rotational Systems:
Torque-balance equations of idealized elements:
Problem 1
Problem 1
Problem 1
Problem 1
Problem 1
Electrical systems:
Problem 1
Problem 1
Problem 1
Problem 1
Problem 1
Problem 1
Problem 1
MODELING OF ELECTROMECHANICAL SYSTEM

TRANSFER FUNCTION OF ARMATURE CONTROLLED DC MOTOR

TRANSFER FUNCTION OF ARMATURE
CONTROLLED DC MOTOR
TRANSFER FUNCTION OF ARMATURE
CONTROLLED DC MOTOR
TRANSFER FUNCTION OF ARMATURE
CONTROLLED DC MOTOR
TRANSFER FUNCTION OF ARMATURE
CONTROLLED DC MOTOR
TRANSFER FUNCTION OF ARMATURE
CONTROLLED DC MOTOR
TRANSFER FUNCTION OF FIELD CONTROLLED
DC MOTOR
TRANSFER FUNCTION OF FIELD CONTROLLED
DC MOTOR
TRANSFER FUNCTION OF FIELD CONTROLLED
DC MOTOR
TRANSFER FUNCTION OF FIELD CONTROLLED
DC MOTOR
TRANSFER FUNCTION OF FIELD CONTROLLED
DC MOTOR
TRANSFER FUNCTION OF FIELD CONTROLLED
DC MOTOR
 Electrical analogous of mechanical translational
systems:
Analogous elements in force-voltage analogy:
GUIDE LINES FOR FORCE VOLTAGE ANALOGY:

The following points serve to obtain the electrical analogous of the

mechanical system,
1. In electrical system, the elements in series will be having the same
current likewise, in mechanical system the elements having same velocity
are said to be on series,
2. The elements having the same velocity in the mechanical system are
said to have the same current in the electrical analogous system.
GUIDE LINES FOR FORCE VOLTAGE ANALOGY:

3. Each node in the mechanical system corresponds to the closed loop in

the electrical system.
4. No. of meshes is same as the no of loops
5. Mechanical driving forces and passive elements are connected to the
nodes, in mechanical system should be represented by analogous element
in closed loop in the electrical analogous system.
6. The element connected b/w 2 nodes in mechanical system represents
common element b/w 2 nodes in an electrical system.
Analogous elements in force-current analogy:
GUIDE LINES FOR FORCE CURRENT ANALOGY:

The following points serve to obtain the electrical analogous of the

mechanical system.

1. In electrical system, the elements in PARALLEL will be having the

same VOLTAGE likewise, in mechanical system the elements having same
FORCES are said to be on PARALLEL.

2. The elements having the same velocity in the mechanical system are
said to have the same ANALOGOUS VOLTAGE in the electrical
analogous system.
GUIDE LINES FOR FORCE CURRENT ANALOGY:

3. Each node in the mechanical system corresponds to the node in the

electrical system. Mass is referred to as node .

4. no. of nodes in the electrical analogous is same s the nodes in the

mechanical system.

5. Mechanical driving sources and passive elements are connected to the

nodes, in mechanical system should be represented by analogous element
connected nodes in the electrical analogous system.

6. The element connected b/w 2 nodes in mechanical system s rep s

common element b/w 2 nodes in an electrical system.
Problem 1
Problem 1
Problem 1
Problem 1
Problem 1
Problem 1
Problem 1
Problem 1
Problem 1
Problem 1
Problem 1
Problem 1
Electrical analogous of mechanical rotational
systems:
Torque -voltage analogy:
Analogous elements in torque-current analogy:
Problem 1
Problem 1
Problem 1
Problem 1
Problem 1
Problem 1
Problem 1
Problem 1
Problem 1
Problem 1
Problem 1
Block
diagram
Transfer
Function

Consists of

Blocks Can be
𝐺
𝑅 𝑠reduced 4 𝑌
𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐺3 𝑠

𝐻
2

𝑅 𝑌
𝑠 𝐺 𝑠
Reduction
techniques
1. Combining blocks in cascade or in
parallel
𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐺 1𝐺 2

𝐺1
𝐺1 + 𝐺2
𝐺
2

2. Moving a summing point behind a

block
𝐺 𝐺

𝐺
3. Moving a summing point ahead of a
block

𝐺
𝐺

1
�
4. Moving a pickoff point behind a �
block
𝐺 𝐺

1
�
�
5. Moving a pickoff point ahead of a
block

𝐺 𝐺

�
�
6. Eliminating a feedback

𝐺
loop
𝐺
1 ∓ GH
𝐻

𝐺 𝐺
1∓𝐺

𝐻=1

7. Swap with two neighboring summing

points

� � � �
� � � �
 Example
1
Find the transfer function of the following block
diagrams

(a
𝐺4
)

𝑌
𝑠
R(s
𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐺3
)

𝐻2

𝐻1
 �

𝐺4
�

𝑅 𝑌
𝑠 𝐺1 � 𝐺2 � 𝐺3 𝑠
� �
𝐻2

𝐻1 𝐺2

Solutio
n:
1. Moving pickoff point A ahead of 𝐺2
block

2. Eliminate loop I &

simplify
� 𝐺4 + 𝐺 2 𝐺 3
�
 𝐺4
𝑅 𝑌
𝐺4 + 𝐺 2 𝐺 3
𝑠 𝐺1 � 𝑠
𝐺2 𝐴
𝐺3
�

𝐻2
𝐻 1𝐺 2

3. Moving pickoff point B behind 𝐺4 + 𝐺 2 𝐺 3

block
II
𝑅 𝑌
𝑠 𝐺1 � 𝐺4 + 𝐺 2 𝐺 3 � 𝑠
� �

𝐻2
𝐻 1𝐺 2
1 / 𝐺4 + 𝐺 2 𝐺 3
 4. Eliminate loop
III
𝑅 𝑌
𝑠 𝐺4𝐺+ 𝐺 2𝐺3 � 𝑠
𝐺1 4 + 𝐺2 𝐺3
1 + 𝐻2 𝐺 4 + 𝐺 2 𝐺 3
𝐶
�

𝐺 2𝐻 1 𝐻2
𝐺4 + 𝐺 2 𝐺 3

Using rule 6

𝑅 𝐺1 𝐺4 + 𝐺 2 𝐺 3 𝑌
𝑠 𝑠
1 + 𝐺1𝐺𝐻1 + 𝐻2 𝐺4 + 𝐺2𝐺3

𝐺1 𝐺4 +
𝑇 =𝑅 =
𝑠 1 + 𝐺1𝐺𝐻1 +𝐺𝐻
2𝐺2 3 𝐺4 + + 𝐺1 𝐺4 +
𝑌 𝑠𝑠
𝐺2𝐺3 𝐺2𝐺3
 (b
)

𝑅 𝑌
𝑠 𝐺1 𝐺2 𝑠

𝐻2
𝐻1

𝐻3
Solutio
n:
1. Eliminate
𝐺2 �
𝑅 𝑌
loop I

𝑠 𝐺1 � 1 + 𝐺 2𝐻 2 � � 𝑠
� 𝐺2 �
𝐻1
𝐻2

𝐻3

𝐺
1 +2
2. Moving pickoff point A behind

𝐺 2𝐻 2
block
𝑅 𝐺2 𝑌
𝑠 𝐺1 𝐴 � 𝑠
1 + 𝐺 2𝐻 2
�

1 + 𝐺 2𝐻 2
𝐻1
II

𝐺2 𝐻
1+
+
3
1 𝐺 𝐻
2 𝐺2
𝐻3 𝐻 loop
Not a feedback
2
3. Eliminate
loop II
𝑅 𝐺 1𝐺 2 𝑌
𝑠 𝑠
1 + 𝐺 2𝐻 2

𝐻1 1 +
𝐻3 + 𝐺 𝐻
2 2
𝐺
2

Using rule 6

𝐺 1𝐺 2
𝑇 =𝑅 =
𝑠 1 + 𝐺 2𝐻 2 + 𝐺 1𝐺 2𝐻 3 + 𝐺 1𝐻 1 +
𝑌 𝑠𝑠
𝐺 1𝐺 2𝐻 1𝐻 2
 (c

𝐻4
)

𝑅
𝑠 𝑌
𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐺3 𝐺4 𝑠

𝐻3

𝐻2

𝐻1
Solutio

𝐺
n:

�
1. Moving pickoff point A behind
block 4

𝐻4
�

𝑅
𝑠 𝑌
𝑠
𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐺3 � 𝐺4 �
� �

𝐻3 1
𝐻3 𝐺4
𝐺4 1
𝐻2 𝐻2
𝐺4 𝐺4

𝐻1
 2. Eliminate loop I and
Simplify
𝑅
𝑌
𝑠 𝐺 2𝐺 3𝐺 4
𝑠
II

𝐺1 1 + 𝐺 3𝐺 4𝐻 4 �
�

𝐻3
𝐺4

𝐻2
𝐺4 III

𝐻1

II feedbac III Not

k feedback
𝐺 2𝐺 3𝐺 4 𝐻 2 − 𝐺 4𝐻 1
1 + 𝐺 3𝐺 4𝐻 4 + 𝐺4
𝐺2𝐺3𝐻3
3. Eliminate loop II &
IIII

𝑅 𝑌
𝐺1𝐺2𝐺3𝐺4
𝑠 𝑠
1 + 𝐺 3𝐺 4𝐻 4 + 𝐺 2 𝐺 3 𝐻 3

𝐻 2 − 𝐺 4𝐻 1
𝐺4

Using rule 6

𝐺1𝐺2𝐺3
𝑇 =𝑅 =
𝑠 1 + 𝐺2𝐺3𝐻3 + 𝐺3𝐺𝐺44𝐻4 + 𝐺1𝐺2𝐺3𝐻2 −
𝑌 𝑠𝑠
𝐺 1𝐺 2𝐺 3𝐺 4𝐻 1
 (d
)
𝐻2

𝑅 𝑌
𝑠 𝐺1 𝐺2 � 𝐺3 𝑠
� �
�

𝐻1

𝐺4
Solutio

𝐺
n:

�
1. Moving pickoff point A behind
block 3
�
𝐻2

𝑅 𝑌
𝑠 𝐺1 𝐺2 � 𝐺3 � 𝑠
� �

1
𝐻1 𝐺3

1
𝐻1 𝐺
3

𝐺4
 2. Eliminate loop I &

𝐻2
Simplify

𝐺2 𝐺 � 𝐺2𝐺3 �
3 � �

1 �1
+
𝐻1 𝐺3 𝐺 2
𝐻
�
3
II

𝑅 𝐺2𝐺3 𝑌
𝑠 𝐺1 𝑠
1 + 𝐺 2𝐻 1 + 𝐺 2 𝐺 3 𝐻 2

𝐻1
𝐺3

𝐺4
3. Eliminate
loop II

𝑅 𝐺1𝐺2𝐺3 𝑌
𝑠 𝑠
1 + 𝐺 2𝐻 1 + 𝐺 2 𝐺 3 𝐻 2 + 𝐺 1𝐺 2𝐻 1

𝐺4

𝐺1𝐺2
𝑇 =𝑅 = 𝐺4
𝑠 + 1 + 𝐺 2𝐻 1 𝐺
+3 𝐺2𝐺3𝐻2 +
𝑌 𝑠𝑠
𝐺 1𝐺 2𝐻 1
Example
2
Determine the effect of R and N on Y in the following
diagram

𝐺4
�

� �
� 𝐺1 𝐺2 �

𝐻1

𝐺3
In this linear system, the output Y contains two parts, one part
is related
to R and the other is caused by N:

𝑌 = 𝑌1 + 𝑌2 = 𝑇1𝑅 +
𝑇2𝑁

If we set N=0, then we can

get Y1:

𝑌1 = 𝑌𝑁=0 = 𝑇1𝑅
The same, we set R=0 and Y2 is also
obtained:

𝑌2 = 𝑌𝑅=0 = 𝑇2𝑁

Thus, the output Y is given as follows:

𝑌 = 𝑌1 + 𝑌2 = 𝑌𝑁=0 + 𝑌𝑅=0
Solutio
n:
�
1. Swap the summing points A

𝐺4
and B
�

� 𝐺2 �
𝐺1
II
� 1 + 𝐺 2𝐻 1 �

𝐵 �
𝐺3
�

�
2. Eliminate loop II &

𝐺4
simplify
�

� 𝐺 1𝐺 2 �
𝐺1 𝐺
1+
3
+
� �
𝐺 2𝐻 1
 Rewrite the

�
diagram:

𝐺4
�

� �
� 𝐺 1𝐺 2 �
𝐺1 𝐺
1+
3
+
� �
� �
𝐺 2𝐻 1

3. Let

� �
N=0
𝐺 1𝐺 2
𝐺1 𝐺
1+
3
+
� �

𝐺 2𝐻 1

We can easily 𝑌
get 1

𝐺 1𝐺 2 + 𝐺 1𝐺 3 +
𝑌1 �
= 1 + 𝐺𝐺2𝐻1𝐺12𝐺 𝐻11𝐺2 + 𝐺1𝐺3 +
+ 3𝐺
𝐺 1𝐺 2𝐺 3𝐻 1
�
 4. Let R=0, we can
� �
get:
� �

𝐺 1𝐺 2
𝐺1 𝐺
1+
3
+
𝐺 2𝐻 1

𝐺4
𝑀

5. Break down the summing

point M:

� �
�
𝐺1 2 𝐺 1𝐺 2
�
𝐺1 𝐺 𝐺 𝐺1 𝐺
4
1𝐺+𝐺 1+
3 4 3
+ +
𝐺 2𝐻 1 𝐺 2𝐻 1
 6. Eliminate above

1
loops:

1+𝐺 𝐺 4 + 𝐺1𝐺2𝐺4 𝐺1 2
�
1 3
1+ 1+𝐺 𝐺 1𝐺+
𝐺 �
1 3
𝐺 2𝐻 1 +
� 𝐺 2𝐻 1 �

1 + 2 1 + 𝐺1 𝐺 2 4𝐺 1 3 4+ 𝐺 1 𝐺
2 3𝐺4
𝑌2 𝐺 𝐻 �
= 1 1+ 𝐺2𝐻1 + 𝐺+ 𝐺 𝐺 𝐺 𝐺 𝐻
1𝐺 2 + 𝐺 1𝐺 3 +
𝐺 1𝐺 2𝐺 3𝐻 1
�

7. According to the principle of an can be com𝑌1bined

superposition, So: d togeth𝑌2er,

𝑌 = 𝑌1
1 +𝑌
𝐺 1𝐺 2 + 𝐺 1𝐺 3 + 2 + 1 + 𝐺 2𝐻 1 + 𝐺 1𝐺 2𝐺 4
1 + 𝐺 2𝐻 1 + 𝐺 1𝐺 2 + 𝐺 1𝐺 3 +
𝐺 1𝐺 2𝐺 3𝐻 1 𝑅 + 𝐺 1𝐺
𝐺 1𝐺 2𝐺 3𝐻 1
Signal Flow Graphs
 Outline
• Introduction to Signal Flow Graphs
– Definitions
– Terminologies
– Examples
• Mason’s Gain Formula
– Examples
• Signal Flow Graph from Block Diagrams
• Design Examples
 Introduction
• Alternative method to block diagram representation, developed
by Samuel Jefferson Mason.

• Advantage: the availability of a flow graph gain formula,

also called Mason’s gain formula.

• A signal-flow graph consists of a network in which nodes

are connected by directed branches.

• It depicts the flow of signals from one point of a system

to another and gives the relationships among the signals.

48
 Fundamentals of Signal Flow Graphs

• Consider a simple equation below and draw its signal flow graph:
y  ax
• The signal flow graph of the equation is shown below;

a y
x
• Every variable in a signal flow graph is designed by a Node.
• Every transmission function in a signal flow graph is designed by a Branch.
• Branches are always unidirectional.
• The arrow in the branch denotes the direction of the signal flow.
Signal-Flow Graph Models

Y1(s) G11 (s)R1(s) 

G12 (s)R2(s)
Y2(s) G21 (s)R1(s) 
G22 (s)R2(s)
 Signal-Flow Graph Models
r1 and r2 are inputs and x1 and x2 are outputs

a11x1  a12x2  r1

x1 a21x1  a22x2 

r2

x2
 Signal-Flow Graph Models

xo is input and x4 is output

x1  ax0  bx1  f
c
x2 2 dx1 
cx x0
a x1 d x2 x3 h
x4
ex3 g
x3  fx0 
b e
gx2 x4  hx3
 Construct the signal flow graph for the following set of
simultaneous equations.

• There are four variables in the equations (i.e., x1,x2,x3,and x4) therefore four nodes are required to
construct the signal flow graph.
• Arrange these four nodes from left to right and connect them with the associated branches.

• Another way to arrange this graph is

shown in the figure.
 Terminologies
• An input node or source contain only the outgoing branches. i.e., X1
• An output node or sink contain only the incoming branches. i.e., X4
• A path is a continuous, unidirectional succession of branches along which no node is
passed more than ones. i.e.,

X1 to X2 to X3 to X4 X1 to X2 to X4 X2 to X3 to X4
• A forward path is a path from the input node to the output node. i.e.,
X1 to X2 to X3 to X4 , and X1 to X2 to X4 , are forward paths.
• A feedback path or feedback loop is a path which originates and terminates on the same
node. i.e.; X2 to X3 and back to X2 is a feedback path.
 Terminologies
• A self-loop is a feedback loop consisting of a single branch. i.e.; A33 is a self loop.
• The gain of a branch is the transmission function of that branch.
• The path gain is the product of branch gains encountered in traversing a path. i.e. the
gain of forwards path X1 to X2 to X3 to X4 is A21A32A43
• The loop gain is the product of the branch gains of the loop. i.e., the loop gain of the
feedback loop from X2 to X3 and back to X2 is A32A23.

• Two loops, paths, or loop and a path are said to be non-touching if they have no nodes
in common.
 Consider the signal flow graph below and identify the following

a) Input node.
b) Output node.
c) Forward paths.
d) Feedback paths (loops).
e) Determine the loop gains of the feedback loops.
f) Determine the path gains of the forward paths.
g) Non-touching loops
 Consider the signal flow graph below and identify the following

• There are two forward path gains;

 Consider the signal flow graph below and identify the following

• There are four loops

 Consider the signal flow graph below and identify the following

• Nontouching loop gains;

 Consider the signal flow graph below and identify the
following

a) Input node.
b) Output node.
c) Forward paths.
d) Feedback paths.
e) Self loop.
f) Determine the loop gains of the feedback loops.
g) Determine the path gains of the forward paths.
 Input and output Nodes

a) Input node

a) Output node
(c) Forward Paths
(d) Feedback Paths or Loops
(d) Feedback Paths or Loops
(d) Feedback Paths or Loops
(d) Feedback Paths or Loops
(e) Self Loop(s)
(f) Loop Gains of the Feedback Loops
(g) Path Gains of the Forward Paths
 Mason’s Rule (Mason, 1953)
• The block diagram reduction technique requires successive application of
fundamental relationships in order to arrive at the system transfer
function.
• On the other hand, Mason’s rule for reducing a signal-flow graph to a
single transfer function requires the application of one formula.
• The formula was derived by S. J. Mason when he related the signal-flow
graph to the simultaneous equations that can be written from the graph.
 Mason’s Rule:
• The transfer function, C(s)/R(s), of a system represented by a signal-flow graph is;

C(s  Pi  i
 i1
Where
)R(s 
)
n = number of forward paths.
Pi = the i th forward-path gain.
∆ = Determinant of the system
∆i = Determinant of the ith forward path

• ∆ is called the signal flow graph determinant or characteristic function. Since ∆=0 is the
system characteristic equation.
 Mason’s Rule:
n

C(s  Pi  i
 i1
)R(s) 
∆ = 1- (sum of all individual loop gains) + (sum of the products of the gains of all
possible two loops that do not touch each other) – (sum of the products of the
gains of all possible three loops that do not touch each other) + … and so forth with
sums of higher number of non-touching loop gains

∆i = value of Δ for the part of the block diagram that does not touch the i-th
forward path (Δi = 1 if there are no non-touching loops to the i-th path.)
 Systematic approach

1. Calculate forward path gain Pi for each forward path i.

2. Calculate all loop transfer functions
3. Consider non-touching loops 2 at a time
4. Consider non-touching loops 3 at a time
5. etc
6. Calculate Δ from steps 2,3,4 and 5
7. Calculate Δi as portion of Δ not touching forward path
i

73
 Example#1: Apply Mason’s Rule to calculate the transfer function of the
system represented by following Signal Flow Graph

Therefore,
C P 11  P 2  2

R 
There are three feedback loops

L1  G1G4 L2  G1G2 G4 H L3  G1G3G4 H 2

H1 , 2,
 Example#1: Apply Mason’s Rule to calculate the transfer function of the
system represented by following Signal Flow Graph

There are no non-touching loops, therefore

∆ = 1- (sum of all individual loop gains)

  1  L1  L2  L3 

  1  G1G4 H 1  G1G2 G4 H 2  G1G3G4 H 2


 Example#1: Apply Mason’s Rule to calculate the transfer function of the
system represented by following Signal Flow Graph

Eliminate forward path-1

∆1 = 1- (sum of all individual loop gain)+...

∆1 = 1

Eliminate forward path-2

∆2 = 1- (sum of all individual loop gains)+...

∆2 = 1
Example#1: Continue
 Example#2: Apply Mason’s Rule to calculate the transfer function of the
system represented by following Signal Flow Graph

P1

P2

1. Calculate forward path gains for each forward path.

P1  G1G2G3G4 (path 1) and P2  G 5 G 6 G 7 G 8

(path 2)

2. Calculate all loop gains.

L1  G 2 H 2 , L2  H 3G3 , L3  G6 H 6 , L4  G7
L1L3 H 7L1L4
L2 L 3 78
3. Consider two non-touching loops.
 Example#2: continue

4. Consider three non-touching loops.

None.

5. Calculate Δ from steps 2,3,4.

  1  L1  L2  L3  L4  L1L3  L1L4  L2 L3  L2 L4 

  1  G2 H 2  H 3G3  G6 H 6  G7 H 7 
G2 H 2 G6 H 6  G2 H 2 G7 H 7  H 3G3G6 H
6  H 3 G3 G7 H 7 

79
 Example#2: continue

Eliminate forward path-1

 1  1  L3  L4 
1  1  G6 H 6  G7 H
7 
Eliminate forward path-2

 2  1  L1  L2 

 2  1  G2 H 2 
G3 H 3 
80
 Example#2: continue

Y (s) P1  1  P2

2
R(s) 
Y (s) G1G2G3G4 1  G6 H 6  G7 H 7  G5G6G7G8 1  G2 H 2  G3
R(s) 1  G2 H  H 3H
G33 G6 H  G7 H 7  G2 H 2 G6 H 6  G2 H 2 G7 H 7  H 3G3G6 H 6  H 3G3G7

2 6 H 7

81
 Example#3
• Find the transfer function, C(s)/R(s), for the signal-flow graph in
figure below.
 Example#3
• There is only one forward Path.

P1  G1 (s)G2 (s)G3 (s)G4 (s)G5

(s)
 Example#3
• There are four feedback loops.
 Example#3
• Non-touching loops taken two at a time.
 Example#3
• Non-touching loops taken three at a time.
 Example#3

Eliminate forward path-1

Example#4: Apply Mason’s Rule to calculate the transfer function of the
system represented by following Signal Flow Graph

There are three forward paths, therefore n=3.

C(s  Pi  i P P P
)R(s  i1  1 1 2 2

3 3

)
 Example#4: Forward Paths

P3  A42 A54 A65

A76

P1  A32 A43 A54 A65 P2 

A72
A76
 Example#4: Loop Gains of the Feedback Loops

L1  A32
L5  A76
L9  A72 A57 A45 A34 A23
A23 L2 
A67 L6 
L10  A72 A67 A56 A45 A34
A43 A34 A77
A23
L3  A54
L7  A42
A45
 Example#4: two non-touching loops

L1 L3 L2 L4 L3 L4 L6 L5 L7 L7 L8

L1 L4 L2 L5 L5 L4 L7
L2 L6 L3 L6

L1 L5 L2
L8

LL
 Example#4: Three non-touching loops

L1 L3 L2 L4 L3 L4 L6 L5 L7 L7 L8

L1 L4 L2 L5 L5 L4 L7
L2 L6 L3 L6

L1 L5 L2
L8

LL
 From Block Diagram to Signal-Flow Graph Models
Example#5

H1

R(s) E(s) X1 － X3 C(s)

G1 G2 G3 G4
－ X2
－
H2

H3

－ H1
R(s) 1 E(s) G1 X1 G2 X2 G3 X 3 G4 C(s)

－ H2

－ H3
 From Block Diagram to Signal-Flow Graph Models
Example#5
－ H1
R(s) X2
1 E(s) G1 X1 G2 G3 G4 X3 1 C(s)

－ H2

－ H3

  1  (G1G 2G 3G4 H 3  G 2G 3 H 2  G 3G4

H1 )
P1  G1G 2G 3G4 ; 1  1
C(s) G1G2G3G
G  R(s
1  G1G2G3G4 H3  G2G3 H2  G3G4
) H1

 Example#6
－
－ X1 Y1
G1
R(s) + + C(s)
E(s)
－ +
— X2
G2
Y2
－

-1
X1 G1 Y1
-1
-1 1
R(s) 1 E(s) C(s)
1 1 1
X2 G2 Y2

-1
-1
 Example#6
-1
X1 G1 Y1
-1 1
R(s) 1 E(s) -1 C(s)
1 1 Y2 1
X2 G2

-1 -1

7 loops:

[G1  (  1)]; [G2  (  1)]; [G1  (  [(  1)G1  1( 

1)G2  1]; 1)];

[(  1)G1  (  1)G2  1 (  1)]; [1G2  1G1 

[G  (  1)][G  (  1)]; [(  1)  G 1(
 1  1)].
 (
[1G  1(  1)];
1 2 2 1

3 ‘21)][G
non-touching loops’ :
2  (  1)]; [1  G2  1  (  1)][G1  (  1)].
 Example#6
-1
X1 G1 Y1
-1 1
R(s) 1 E(s) -1 C(s)
1 1 Y2 1
X2 G2

-1 -1

Then:
Δ  1  2G 2 
4 forward paths: 4G 1G 2
p1  (  1)G1 Δ1  1  G2
p2  (  1)
 1 G1  (  1) Δ2  1
G2  1
Δ3  1 
p3  1  G 2  1 G1
 Example#6

We have

C(s) 

p k  k

R(s)


G2

 G1  2G1 G2
1  2G2
 Example-7: Determine the transfer function C/R for the block diagram below by signal
flow graph techniques.

• The signal flow graph of the above block diagram is shown below.

• There are two forward paths. The path gains are

• The three feedback loop gains are

• No loops are non-touching, hence

• Because the loops touch the nodes of P1, hence • Hence the control ratio T = C/R is

• Since no loops touch the nodes of P2,

therefore
 Example-6: Find the control ratio C/R for the system given below.

• The signal flow graph is shown in the figure.

• The two forward path gains are

• The five feedback loop gains are

• There are no non-touching loops, hence

• All feedback loops touches the two forward paths,

hence

• Hence the control ratio T =

 Design Example#1

1
V1 (s) Cs I (s)  1I
1
(s)R CsV1 (s)  CsV2 (s) 
V2 (s)  I1 (s)
I1 (s)R Cs

Cs R

V1(s) I 1 (s) V2 (s)

 Design Example#2

F  M 1 s 2 X 1  k1 ( X 1  X 2 0  M 2 s 2 X 2  k1 ( X 2  X 1 )  k 2
) X2
Design Example#2
Design Example#2
THANK YOU...