Unit 1

Concept
• "Re-search" means search again and again
until you reach near to the facts.
• To discover facts by scientific methods.
• Original contribution to the existing stock
of knowledge.
• One of the ways of collecting and
understanding information and finding
answers of particular question.
 Concept

“Research is systematic, controlled, empirical and critical

investigation of hypothetical propositions about the
presumed relations among natural phenomena."

Kerlinger (1986)

"Research is an organized, systematic, data based,

critical, scientific enquiry or investigation into specific
problem, undertaken with the objective of finding
answers or solutions to it.”
Sekaran (2000)
 Concept

A careful Investigation or inquiry specially through

search for new facts in any branch of Knowledge.”
“ - Advanced Learner Dictionary

“Systematized effort to gain new Knowledge”.

-Redman and Mory

Research in common parlance ( phrase ) refers to

search of knowledge. Research is thus, an original
contribution to the existing stock of knowledge,
for making its advancement.
 Features of Research
• Directed to solution of the problem
• Logical
• Empirical
• Systematic
• Replicable
• Free from personal biases
• Generalizability
• Control
 What is Social Research?
• It is research involving social scientific methods,
theories and concepts which can enhance our
understanding of the social processes and problems
encountered by individuals and groups in society.
• It is conducted by sociologists, psychologists,
economists, political scientists and anthropologists.
• It is not just common sense, based on facts without
theory, using personal life experience or
perpetuating media myths.

5
 Social research is a scientific process

• It involves the systematic collection of methods to

produce knowledge.
• It is objective.
• It can tell you things you do not expect.
• It consists of theory and observation.
• Sometimes called ‘soft sciences’ because their subject
matter (humans) are fluid and hard to measure
precisely.
• It is an empirical research – i.e. facts are assumed to
exist prior to the theories that explain them.

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 Types of Research
1. Basic or pure research- It is conducted to
expand the limits of knowledge. It doesn't
directly involve the solution to a particular,
practical problem.

2.Applied research : - It is conducted when a

decision must be taken about a specific real
life problem. It tries to find out the answer of
the specific problem.
 Basic

Applied
Why our sales
has gone down
this month?
 Basic Research Example
• Does work force diversity increase the
productivity?
• Are members of highly cohesive work groups
more satisfied than members of less cohesive
work groups?
• Training to high aged people is less effective
than low aged people?

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 Applied Research Examples
• What kinds of new features Samsung can add
in its mobile phones so as to increase its sales
revenue?
• Is it feasible to establish the new branch of
Nepal bank limited in Mugu?
• What kinds of new ingredients should CG offer
in its noodles (wai-wai) so as to compete in
South Indian market?
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 Why people undertake research work?
• To achieve new insights into the problem.
• To discover facts which are existing in the
world.
• To solve the unsolved problems and to get
intellectual joy of doing some creative work.
• To serve the society and to get respect.
• To get research degree with its consequential
benefits.
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 Features of Scientific Research
• Rigorous
• Testability
• Replicability
• Generalizability
• Purposive
• Objective
 Scientific Research Process
• Realizing the problem
1

• Problem Identification
2

• Research Design/Theoretical
3 Framework

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 Scientific Research Process

• Data collection
4

• Analyzing the data

5

• Preparing Report
6

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 Scientific Research Process

7 • Refinement of
Theory or practice

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 Research Process…

1. Realizing the problem

First of all problem should be realized by the
researcher to begin the research. If there is
something wrong, research is needed.

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 Problem Formulation

• Where do research topics come from?

• What is the idea for a research project?

 One of the most common sources of

research ideas is the experience of
practical problems in the field.
 The Literature Review

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• “The formulation of the problem is often more
essential than its solution”

• “Well begun is half done.”

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 Research Process...

2. Problem Identification
Researcher should identify what exactly are
the problems or issues in the situation.

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 Research Process...
3. Research Design /Theoretical Framework
• The main function of a research design is to
explain how researcher will find answers to
the research questions.
• The research design sets out the logic of
researcher's inquiry.
• Research design must be valid, workable and
manageable.
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 Research Process...

4. Data collection
• Data collection is the primary task of the field
work. It is actually an initiation of the research
works. Primary and secondary sources of data
can be used in research.
• Questionnaire, interview schedules,
observation schedules are used in data
collection.
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 Research Process...

5. Analyzing the Data

• After collection of the data, it has to be
tabulated, edited, and analyzed using various
statistical tools.
• Data can be analyzed in several ways but
should use most appropriate tools to assess
the reliability of data.
6. Preparing Report : After analyzing the data,
report is prepared in the appropriate format.
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 Research Process...

7. Refinement of Theory or Practice

• Process of expanding the stock of knowledge
is continuous process.
• Findings of the previous research may be the
starting of the next research.

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 Business Research
• "Business / management research is a systematic
and organized investigation conducted to resolve
problematic issues in, or interrelated among, the
different areas of management.”
-Sakeran (2000)

• "Business research is a systematic inquiry to

provide information to solve the managerial
problems."
-Cooper & Schindler (2003)
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 Business Research
• Research that is conducted / used to solve the
business problem is called business /
management research.
• It is systematic and objective process of data
gathering, recording, and analyzing data to
support on making business decision.
• Business research is the process of finding
solutions to a problem after a thorough study
and analysis of the situational factors.
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 Objectives of Business Research
• To improve the quality of business decision.
• To innovate new product or find out new
market.
• To impart the knowledge of manager to lead
the organization in the right direction.
• To save cost, time and resources.
• To achieve the goal of the business.

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 Objectives of Business Research…
• To solve technical and managerial problems.
• To reduce uncertainty of business and
increase the productivity.
• To facilitate the managerial decision making
process for all aspects of a business : finance,
production, marketing, personnel etc.

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 Value of Research in Decision Making
• Identify problems
• Reduce uncertainty
• Selecting, implementing, and evaluating
course of action
• Assessing problems and opportunities
• Get the accurate picture
• Ensuring quality.
Difficulties in Applying Scientific Methods to
Social Science Research
• Complexity of subject matter.
• Difficult to obtain accurate measurement
• Misconceived impression of society
• Subjectivity of social events
• Emotional tendencies
• Vested interest of researcher
• Qualitativeness of social events
• Lack of universality of social events
 Type of Management Research
• Policy Research
• Action Research
• Evaluation Research
• Basic Research
• Objective Research
Ethics in Business Research

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 Ethics in Business Research

• All professions are guided by a code of ethics

(conduct) that has evolved over the years to
accommodate the changing philosophy, values,
needs and expectations of those who hold a risk in
the professions.

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 Ethics in Business Research

• Research organization has some ethical

responsibilities towards three stakeholders:
participants, researcher and sponsor
organizations.

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 Ethical Issues and Principles
• Informed Consent
• Respect for privacy
• Confidentiality and anonymity of data
• What is permissible to ask?
• No harm to researcher’s subjects
• No dishonesty or lying in the course of research
• Consequences of publication
• Carefulness
• Legality
• Non-discrimination
• Respect for intellectual property 34
 Ethics in Business Research

• Ethics is a principal behavior that distinguish between

what is good and bad, and right and wrong.
• Researchers have to follow the certain rules and
guidelines to conduct the research.
• Acts and Rules are formal but ethics is more informal.

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36
 Emerging paradigms in research

1.Positivism
All knowledge is scientific. Knowledge can be pursued
by scientific method. The belief of positivists is that
the natural sciences have evolved an approach to
research which can be applied universally and which
gives rise better than any other approach to new
knowledge and insights.

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 Paradigms of research

Contd…
The methodological procedures of natural science hence
may appropriately be applied as social science, and its
results can be expressed as laws or empirical
generalizations similar to those developed for the natural
sciences.

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 Paradigms of research

More specifically,

• Social physics
• An objective reality exists that can be
measured, analyzed, modeled & replicated
• Regularities and patterns are present
• Social reality can be quantified measured and
analyzed systematically
Example: poverty exists and can be measured
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 Paradigms of research

Rise of “Positivist” Social Science

They believe that the methodology

of the natural sciences should be
used in social science also.
August Comte (1798-1857)

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 Paradigms of research

2. Empiricism
Key feature of the scientific method is empiricism .
The term “empirical” means “ knowledge based
on real world observation or experiment. In other
words, by empiricism we mean the data collected
by using our senses, such as sight and hearing.

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 Paradigms of research

Contd…
Empiricism seek evidence through direct
experience rather than through reasoning and
intuition. Such thing as emotions, motives, or
perceptions are thus not agreeable to empirical
research. We can only research the empirical
indicators of such phenomena ( such as laughing
or particular actions)
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 Paradigms of research

• We should only attempt to

answer the “answerable”
questions.

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 Paradigms of research

3.Interpretivism
From the second half of the twentieth century,
some of the most prominent social scientists
refuted the claim that scientific method could
adequately provide real understanding of the
complex relationships in society and between
individuals.

44
 Paradigms of research

Contd…
It refers to a method or group of methods. That
hold that the social sciences ought to be
concerned not simply with quantifying what
actually happened in social phenomena but in
providing an interpretation of events and
phenomena in terms of how the people involved
perceive and interpret their own experiences.
The philosophy of research explores the cultural
and historical interpretations of the social world.
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 Paradigms of research

That means,
• An objective reality does not exist; instead
reality is understood differently in different
society as it is interpreted.
• The goal is to understand what meaning
people give to reality
• Reality is relative depending on how the
group or the person perceives it
• Example: poverty is in the eye of the 46
 Paradigms of research
Approaches used in interpretivism
• Ethnography : A scientific description of peoples
and cultures with their customs, habits, and
mutual differences.
• Phenomenology: An approach that concentrates
on the study of consciousness and the objects of
direct experience.
• Hermeneutics: A branch of knowledge that deals
with interpretation, especially of religious and
literary texts. 47
 Paradigms of research
4. Constructivism
This philosophy of research believes that meaning does
not exist in its own right; rather it is constructed by human
beings as they interact and engage in interpretation. Each
one of us generates our own “rules” and “mental models”
which we use to make sense of our experiences. When we
encounter something new, we have to reconcile it with our
previous ideas and experiences. To this view, reality is not
a static concept. It changes and is constructed differently
in different times and places.
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 Paradigms of research
Contd…
Today, social scientists are of the opinion that
reality and our knowledge of it are socially
constructed in that they are a product of particular
social, political, and historical circumstances. For
them, observable facts are not objective facts.
These labels merely reflect human attempts to
categorize nature. Their meaning changes
depending on how the reality is constructed.
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 Paradigms of research
5. Subjectivism
This philosophy emphasizes the subjective
elements in experience and accepts that personal
experiences are the foundation for factual
knowledge. Subjectivism holds that knowledge is
generated from the mind, without the reference
to the reality. How researchers “see” the world
can also influence the research process.
Everyone’s mind is different and everyone
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experiences events differently.
 Paradigms of research

Contd…
This philosophy thus believes that gaining
knowledge about the world is done through
examination and consideration of own ideas.
Hence findings seem more “subjective” in their
interpretation may depend on the approach
taken by the attitude of the researcher.
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 Unit 2

Literature Searching and

Theoretical Framework
“Research is to see what everybody has
seen and to think what nobody else had
thought.”

- Albert Szent-Gyorgyi

53
 Concept of Literature
• "Literature" means the published or
unpublished, printed or audio visual, books or
reports and other relevant materials that is
consulted by researchers to understand and
investigate research problem.

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 Review
• Review is the process of locating ( to find out),
obtaining ( to receive ), reading ( to store in
mind), and evaluating ( critically examine ) the
research literature in the area of researcher's
interest.
• Review is a process of systematic, thorough
and critical summary of the published or
unpublished literature in the field of
research.
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 Literature Review
• Literature review is an account of what has
been published on a topic by accredited
scholars and researchers.

• Literature review is a summary and analysis of

current knowledge about particular topic or
area of inquiry.

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 Need and Significance of Literature
Review
Review of literature helps the researchers in
many ways, some of them are as follows:
• Easy to identify research problems & relevant
variables
• Avoidance of repetition
• Synthesis of prior works
• Determining meaning and relationship among
variables
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 Need and Significance of Literature
Review
• To find out existing stock of knowledge in the
proposed research area.
• To find out what others has been done /
written in the same subject.
• To find out theories developed in the subject.
• To know the approach taken by other
researchers.

58
 Need and Significance of Literature Review

• To find out areas of agreement and

disagreement.
• To find out gap that can fill through the
proposed research.
• To avoid needless duplication in the subject.
• To save time and resources( to protect from
the unnecessary waste of time).

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 Need and Significance of Literature
Review
• To make clarity and focus to research problem.
• To improve methodology.
• To broaden knowledge of researcher.

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 Sources of Literature Review
• Books
• Research articles
• Abstracts
• Reports
• Dissertations
• internet
 Three Key Points of Literature Review
• Tell me what the research says (theory)
• Tell me how the research carried out
(methodology)
• Tell me what is missing i.e. the gap that your
research intends to fill.
Steps in review of literature or Four
phase of literature review

Re An
Locatin Obtaini ad al
g ng
in yzi
g ng
63
 1.Locating the literature

• Encyclopedia
• Card
• Computer Catalogues
• Journal Index
• International bibliographies

64
 2. Obtaining the literature

• Libraries
• Online sources
• CD ROM Sources
• Other sources

65
 Obtaining Literature…

Your literature
search will be an
early activity.
Despite this early
start, it is usually
neccessary to
continue searching
throughout your
project.
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 Obtaining the Literature…
• Assessing relevance: Remember to make
notes about the relevance of each item as you
read it and the reasons why you came to your
conclusion.
• Assessing sufficiency: One clue that you have
read enough is, when further searching
provides mainly references to items you
already have read. Also, check with your
instructor.

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 3. Reading the literature

• Efficient and selective Reading

• Keeping Track of References
• Annotating your reference
• Developing a structure

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 Reading the literature…
As you read each item, you need to ask
yourself how it contributes to your research
question and objecitves and make notes with
this focus. You should take photocopies of the
sources, but also you need to record;
bibliographic details, brief summary of
content and supplementary information.

69
 Recording the literature
Bibliographic details
• Books: Author(s) name & surname, year of
publication, title and subtitle of book, edition,
place of publication, publisher

• Journal: Author(s) name & surname, year of

publication, title of article, title of journal,
volume, issue, page numbers

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 Recording the literature
Brief Summary
This will help you to locate the relevant items.
This can be done by annotating each record
with the key words used to locate the item
and the abstract. It will also help you to
maintain consistency in your searches.

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 Recording the literature
Supplementary Information

Some other information may also be worth

recording; like ISBN number, class number,
quotations, where it was found, the tertiary
resource used, evaluative comments, and
when the item was consulted.

72
4. Analyzing/Critical Review
of the Literature

• Criteria of Review
• Content Analysis
• Critical Review
• Style and Tone
• Meta-analysis
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 Literature Search through the Internet
• Internet is a worldwide computer network
that provides access to a large range of
literatures.
• World Wide Web is mostly used part of the
internet.
• It provides the link to the texts pointing out
essential one. It provides instant access to the
literature and data banks managed for
commercial purpose.
 Theoretical Framework

• A theoretical framework is a
conceptual model that shows
the relationships among the
several factors that have been
identified as important to the
problem.
 Steps in Problem Formulation

• Identified broad problem area

• Divide the subject area into sub areas
• Decide about an area
• Defining problem
• Decide about the objectives
 Research Questions
• Research question is a statement developed in
the research that identifies the factors to be
satisfied.
• It helps researcher to do the work in the trend
as he or she intend.
 Types of Research Questions
• Descriptive question
• Observational/ relational questions
• Casual or cause and effect questions
 Deduction and Induction

Deduction

Induction
 Social research strategies

Ideas: What we think

THEORY

DEDUCTIVE INDUCTIVE
REASONING REASONING

DATA
Reality: What we observe

80
 The Relation Between
Theory and Empirical Research
• Deductive Model – research is used to test
theories.
• Inductive Model – theories are developed
from analysis of data.

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 Deductive and Inductive Logic
• Research that comes from observation with little
prior theory is inductive, whereas logical theory
tends to be more deductive.

• However, the formulation of new research

questions usually contains elements of both since
the real world must motivate our curiosity,
although reformulations of questions may be
more deductively motivated based on work of
others.
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 Hypothesis
• Research hypothesis depends on the identification of
the problem & development of alternative research
questions.
• Identification of research problem requires the
researcher to identify factors influencing the problem.
• A hypothesis is an unproven statement intended to test
the validity of different factors under consideration.
• It is a tentative statement of a relationship that exists
between two or more variables stipulated by the
theory.
• Testable statement.

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 Difference between hypothesis &
problem
• Both hypothesis and problem contribute to the
body of knowledge which supports or refutes an
existing theory.
A hypothesis differs from a problem
• A problem is formulated in the form of a question;
it serves as the basis or origin from which a
hypothesis is derived.
• A hypothesis is a suggested solution to a problem.
• A problem (question) cannot be directly tested,
whereas a hypothesis can be tested and verified.
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 When is a hypothesis formulated?

• A hypothesis is formulated after the problem has

been stated and the literature study has been
concluded.
• It is formulated when the researcher is totally aware
of the theoretical and empirical background of the
problem.
• It helps to confirm or disconfirm theory.

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 Concept and formulation of hypothesis

• Hypothesis is merely an assumption or a supposition

(belief) to be proved or disproved.
• It is a predictive statement, capable of being tested
by scientific methods, that relates an independent
variable to some dependent variables or vice versa.

86
 Contd…
• Hypotheses are tentative statements that should
either be acknowledged or rejected by means of
research.
• The hypothesis is the necessary link between theory
and the investigation, which leads to addition of new
knowledge.
• Hypothesis is formulated to test the reliability of
estimated population parameters.

87
 Characteristics of good hypothesis
• It has elucidating (making clear) power.
• It strives to furnish an acceptable explanation of
the phenomenon.
• It is falsifiable and testable.
• It is formulated in simple, understandable terms.
• It corresponds with existing knowledge i.e.it is
consistent with most known facts.
• It is limited in scope and specific in nature.
• It can be tested in reasonable time.
88
 Characteristics of good hypothesis

• It identifies the independent and dependent

variables to be studied.
• It specifies the nature of the relationship that
exists between these variables.
• It is simple (often referred to as parsimonious).
• It is better to be concise than to be long-
winded. It is also better to have several simple
hypotheses than one complicated hypothesis.
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 Characteristics of good hypothesis

• It does not include reference to specific

measures.
• It does not refer to specific statistical
procedures that will be used in analysis.
• It implies the population that the researcher
going to study.

90
 Types of hypotheses
Hypotheses can be classified in various ways:
1. In terms of their derivation:
a) Inductive and b) deductive hypotheses.
2. In terms of their formulation :
a) Directional and b) non-directional hypotheses
3. In terms of their statistical basis:
a) Null and b) Alternative hypotheses

91
 Inductive and Deductive Hypotheses

• Inductive hypothesis – Constructing theory or general

principles from specific observations (Theory Building).
It is more open ended and exploratory.
• Deductive hypothesis – The exercise of developing
hypotheses from theory. (Theory Testing). It is
narrower in nature and is concerned with testing and
reasoning.

92
 Directional and Non-directional
• Non directional hypotheses : We don’t know or can’t
speculate about the direction of the relationship
between two variables.

• Directional hypotheses: We state the direction of the

relationship between two variables.

93
 Null Hypothesis (H0)

• It is the hypothesis of no difference.

• It assumes that there is no true/significant difference in
the sample statistics & population parameter or the
difference is due to sample fluctuation.
• Rejecting (H0) indicates difference is statistically
significant.
• Accepting (H0) indicates difference is due to chance.
H0 : Ǿ = Ǿ0

94
 Example : Null Hypothesis(H0)
In a clinical trial of a new drug, the null
hypothesis might be that the new drug is no
better, on average, than the current drug.
It is written -
H0: There is no significant difference between
the two drugs on average.

95
 Example : Null Hypothesis (H0)
• There is no significant relationship between
stress experienced on the job and the job
satisfaction of the employees.
• There is no significant relationship between age
and job satisfaction.
• There is no significant relationship between
work and productivity.
• There is no significant relationship between
working conditions and job satisfaction of
employees.
• There is no significant difference between male
96
 Alternative Hypothesis (H1)
• The alternative hypothesis is a statement of what a hypothesis
test is set up to establish.
• Opposite of Null Hypothesis.
• Frequently “alternative" is actual desired conclusion of the
researcher.
• It is the hypothesis that has to be accepted when H0 is rejected.
H0 : Ǿ ≠ Ǿ0 ( Two tail) (Not the same)
OR
H0 : Ǿ > Ǿ0 ( One tail / Right tail) (Greater than value)
H0 : Ǿ < Ǿ0 (One tail / Left tail) (Less than value)

97
 Example : Alternative hypothesis ( H1)

The alternative hypothesis might be that:

 The new drug has a different effect, on average,
compared to that of the current drug.
It is written -
H1: The two drugs have different effects, on
average.
The new drug is better, on average, than the
current drug.
It is written -
H1: The new drug is better than the current drug,
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 Example
H0 : There is no significant relationship between gender of
adolescents and their smoking behavior
H1: There is significant relationship between gender of
adolescents and their smoking behavior
OR
H1: Gender of adolescents affects their smoking behavior

Q1: Student achievement score is influenced by their family

income, ethnicity, and mother’s literacy.

Q2: High income people do not tend to use public

transportation.
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 Hypothesis Formulation

Problem  Theory  Hypothesis

Problem : The rate of road accident in highway
is so increasing that if it is continued, it will be
a serious issue in the country.
Theory: The road accident can be controlled
through providing training to driver and
strictly comply the traffic rules.
Hypothesis : Training to driver and comply of
traffic rules can reduce the road accidents.
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 Errors in testing of Hypothesis
• Rejection of Ho when it is true ( Type I error)
• Acceptance of Ho when it is false ( Type II error)

Decision State of Nature

Ho is true Ho is false
Ho is Correct Type II
accepting band thing.
Accepted Decision error (β)

Ho is Type I Correct
Rejected error (α) Decision
101
 Type I Error

It occurs when the null hypothesis (H0) is wrongly

rejected.

For example:
A type I error would occur if we concluded that the two
drugs produced different effects when in fact there was
no difference between them.

102
 Type II Error:
A type II error occurs when the null hypothesis
H0, is not rejected when it is in fact false.

For example:
A type II error would occur if we concluded
that the two drugs produced the same effect,
that is, there is no difference between the two
drugs on average, when in fact they produced
different ones.
103
 Unit 3

Research Design

104
 Research Design
Research Design is a master plan specifying the
methods and procedures for collecting and analyzing
the needed information.
( Zikmund, 2007)

105
 Research Design
• It is a formal plan of action for a research project/blue
print of the research project.
• Research designs help researchers to lay out their
research questions, methodologies, implementation
procedures, and data collection and analysis to conduct
a research project.

106
Elements of Research Design

Subject of
Investigation

Report
Methodology
Writing

Research
Design

Data
Data Analysis
Gathering

107
 Types of Research Design
• The researcher, like an architect of research work,
should choose from many design alternatives and
consider over the trade-offs of each approach and
decide the best possible solution.
• Research design decisions are influenced by the
questions the investigator is trying to answer, by the
resources such as time, trained personnel, and
money that the researchers have at hand and
personal interest.

108
 Types of Research Design
A . Exploratory research design
B. Descriptive research design
1. Historical research
2. Descriptive research
3. Case Study research
4. Developmental research
5. Survey research
C. Comparative research design
6. Co-relational research
7. Causal-comparative research
D. Interventional research design
8. True experimental research
9. Quasi-experimental research
E. Qualitative research design
109
 Exploratory Research Design
It is suitable when…
• The topic or issue is new and data are difficult to
collect.
• Can address research questions of all types (what,
why, how).
• Prior knowledge or information in a particular area is
very little but a deeper information in a particular
area is needed.

110
 Exploratory Research Design
• Exploratory research provides insights into and
comprehension of an issue or situation.
• It is most commonly unstructured and informal
research that is undertaken to gain background
information about the general nature of the research
problem.
• It is usually conducted when the researcher does not
know much about the problem

111
 Exploratory Research Design
Features:
• Discovery of ideas and insights.
• Flexible and versatile.
• The front end of total research design.
• Useful when researcher does not have clear idea
about the problems at hand and sometimes may
have vague idea in mind.
• Use both quantitative and qualitative techniques but
relies more on qualitative techniques.

112
 Approaches for Exploratory
Investigations
• Interviewing
• Participant observation
• Film, photographs
• Projective techniques
• Psychological testing
• Case studies
• Street ethnography
• Elite or expert interviewing
• Document analysis
113
Descriptive Research Design

114
 Historical Research
• Systematic collection and objective evaluation of
data related to past occurrences.
• Helps to explain present events and anticipate future
events.
• A process of collecting, evaluating and synthesizing
past evidence systematically and objectively to reach
in a conclusion.

115
 Characteristics of Historical
Research

• Depends upon the data observed by others rather

than the investigators.
• Primary and secondary sources of data can be used.
• Critical evaluation of data.
• Somehow similar to review of literature.
• Seeking out information from a larger range.

116
 Descriptive Research
• Descriptive studies are also called observational,
because you observe the subject without intervening
the situation.
• The simplest descriptive study is a case, which
reports data on only one subject.
• It is also known as statistical or survey research.
• It describes data and characteristics about the
population or phenomenon being studied.

117
 Descriptive Research
• Descriptive research answers the questions who,
what, where, when and how but not why.
• It describes the situation and event.
• The objective of descriptive research is ‘to portray an
accurate profile of persons, events or situations.’
• This may be an extension of exploratory research.

118
 Case Study Research

• A case study (case report) is a method of descriptive

research that documents a practitioner’s experiences,
thoughts, or observations related to a single unit under
consideration.
• It is a comprehensive study of a unit (over a long period
of time) examination of a single instance or event.
• It gives in depth information about the particular social
unit.
• Researcher should be cautious on extreme or deviant,
critical and paradigmatic cases.
119
 Case Study Research
• Extreme cases reveal more information because they
activate more basic mechanisms and more actors in the
situation studied.
• Useful for testing whether scientific theories and models
actually work in the real world.
Types of case study
i. Snapshot case study
ii. Longitudinal case study
iii. Pre-post case study
iv. Patchwork case study
v. Cross-case study
120
 Developmental Research
• It is used to assess changes over an extended period
of time.
• It concentrates on the study of variables, their rates
of change, directions , sequences and other inter-
related factors over a period of time.
There are three methods of developmental research:
i. Longitudinal
ii. Cross sectional
iii. Cross sequential- Both of the above

121
 Types of developmental Research
A) Longitudinal Studies:
Study changes or continuity in sample’s characteristics at
different points of time.
i. Trend Study: May or may no be the same sample in different
point of time. (Village A in 1950, Village A in 2015) OR
( Village A in 1950, Village B in 2015)
ii. Cohort Study: A cohort is a specific group of people who share
common characteristics or experiences within a defined period of
time .
[Student Cohort : 1st batch students of BBA-BI in Uniglobe
College]
iii. Panel Study : A group of individuals taken in study regarding their
attitudes towards particular phenomenon over the period of
time.
122
 Types of developmental Research

B) Cross Sectional Studies:

Data are collected in a single point of time with
heterogeneous group. It focuses on comparing and
describing between the groups.
Longitudinal studies involve a series of
measurements taken over a period of time but cross
sectional studies take place at a single point of time.

123
 Comparative Research Design
• It aims to show cause-and-effect relationships
between two or more variables.
• One variable is considered as the cause(independent
variable) and the other variable is considered as the
effect ( dependent variable).
Types of Comparative Research Design:
i. Co-relational research
ii. Causal-comparative research

124
 Co-relational Research
• It relates two or more variables and allow predictions of
outcomes based on the relationships between the variables.
• It is used to find out the extent of relationship between
different variables.
• It is also used to find out whether two or more variables
auto correlated.
• It is appropriate when variables are very complex or do not
lend themselves to the experimental method and controlled
manipulation.
• Permits the measurement of several variables and their
relationships simultaneously and in a realistic setting.
125
 Causal Comparative Research
(Ex Post Facto Research)
• It aims to establish the direction, magnitude and
form of observed relationships.
• It permits investigation of variables that can not or
should not be investigated experimentally, facilitate
decision making, provide guidance for experimental
studies, and are less costly on all dimensions.

126
 Contd…
• The independent variable is not ( nor should it be) manipulated
by the researcher.
• The groups are already formed.
• Differences between the groups is not brought on by the
researcher.
• In causal comparative research the random sample is selected
from two already existing populations, not from a single
population as in experimental research.
Comparative Research Design (Both Co-relational and Causal
Comparative ) are used…
1. When it is unethical to manipulate an independent
variable(e.g. diet).
2. When the independent variable CANNOT be manipulated (e.g.
gender, ethnicity, etc.)
127
 Interventional Research Design

• In interventional research design, the conditions are

controlled so that one or more variables can be
manipulated in order to test a hypothesis.
• Typically, the purpose of undertaking experiments is
to determine causal relationships between variables
(chosen dependent and independent variables),
while eliminating or controlling all other variables
that may have an impact on these variables under
investigation.

128
 Types of Interventional
(Experimental) Research
1. Laboratory Experiment: An experiment conducted
in a laboratory or artificial setting to obtain almost
complete control over the research setting.
2. Field Experiment: An experiment conducted in a
natural setting, often for a long period of time
where one or more independent variables are
manipulated by the experimenter under the
carefully controlled conditions if the situation
permits to do so.

129
 Quasi-experimental research

Study Group(Before) Intervention Study Group(After)

Compare

Study Group(Before) Control Group(After)

130
 Types of Quasi-experimental research
Considering the limitations in applying strictly controlled experimental
research in social sciences, the ‘quasi-experimental’ research design has
been suggested. Different types of ‘quasi-experimental’ research design
are as follows:
i. Pre-test / Post-Test Comparison Group: Both a control group and an
experimental group, is compared. However, the groups are chosen
and assigned out of convenience rather than through randomization.
ii. Time Series Design: It refers to the pre-testing and post-testing of one
group at different intervals. There is no control group to compare with
the experimental group.
iii. Nonequivalent Before-After Design: It is used to compare two groups
that are likely to be different even before the study begins.
Researcher doesn’t control the assignment to groups through the
mechanism of random assignment.

131
 Qualitative Research Design

• Qualitative Research is all about exploring issues,

understanding phenomena, and answering
questions.
• It explores and interprets perception, opinions,
aspirations, behaviors, motivation, culture or
lifestyles of the sample.
• Concerned primarily with process rather than
outcomes or products.

132
 Contd…
• Interested in meaning- how people make sense of
their lives, experiences, and their structures of the
world.
• The qualitative research is the primary instrument for
data collection and analysis.
• Qualitative research involves fieldwork.
• The process of qualitative research is primarily
inductive in that the researcher builds abstractions,
concepts, hypotheses, and theories from details.

133
 Pilot Study
• A pilot study is defined as “a preliminary
investigation to determine the feasibility of a large
study.”
• As it is a miniature version of the study, it is done on
a small scale.
• The purpose of a pilot study is to refine the data
collection procedures, instruments, or the research
design.
• It helps to save time, and in some cases, money, by
identifying any flaws in the procedure designed by
the researcher.
134
 UNIT 4

Measurement, Scaling
and Sampling
 Variable
Variable is a characteristic of a person, thing or activity that
can be defined and measured.
An attribute is a specific value on a variable. For instance, the
variable gender has two attributes: male and female.
Types of Variables:
Variables can be classified on various basis :
• Dependent & Independent Variables
• Moderating, Control & Intervening Variables
• Active and Attributes variables
• Discrete and Continuous
• Quantitative and Qualitative Variables

136
 1. Dependent & Independent Variable

Smoking Cancer
Independent Dependent
Variable (IV) Variable(DV)
Affect the relationship

Age, daily exercise

Frequency of smoking etc.
Extraneous Variable

137
 Contd…
a) Independent variables (IV):
• manipulated by the experimenter
• under the control of the experimenter
b) Dependent variables (DV):
• not under the experimenter’s control
• usually the outcome to be measured
Increase in price of tea increases the demand of coffee.
Independent variable (IV): price of tea
Dependent variable (DV): demand of coffee

138
 2. Moderating, Intervening and Control Variables

a) Moderating Variables (MV):

It is second independent variable that is included in a
proposition because it is believed to have a significant
contribution or contingent effect on the originally
stated IV – DV relationship. That is, the presence of a
third variable ( the moderating variable) modifies the
originally expected relationship between the
independent and the dependent variables.
Increase in salary (IV) increases productivity of
workers (DV) specially in the case of piece rate
workers (MD).
139
 b) Intervening Variable
An intervening variable is one that surfaces
between the time the independent variables
operate to influence the dependent variable and
their impact on the dependent variable. There is
thus a temporal quality or time dimension to the
intervening variable. The intervening variable
surfaces as a function of the independent
variable(s) operating in any situation and helps to
conceptualize and explain the influence of the
independent variable(s) on the dependent variable.
 Diagram of the relationship among the independent,
moderating and dependent variable

Number of books Reading abilities

Independent variable Dependent variable

Parents’
literacy

Moderating variable
 Diagram of the relationship among the independent,
moderating, intervening and dependent variable

Time t1 t2 t3

Workforce Organizational
diversity Creative Synergy
Effectiveness

Independent variable Intervening variable Dependent variable

Managerial
Expertise

Moderating variable
 It is now easy to see what the differences among an
independent variable, intervening variable, and a
moderating variable are. The independent variable
helps to explain the variance in the dependent
variable; the intervening variable surfaces at time t2 as
a function of the independent variable, which also
helps us to conceptualize the relationship between the
independent and dependent variables; and the
moderating variable has a contingent effect on the
relationship between two variables. That is, unless the
moderating variable is present, the theorized
relationship between the other two variables
considered will not hold.
c) Controlled Variables
Controlled variables are controlled, or more
specifically kept constant so that they do not
unduly affect how the independent variable
affects the dependent variable.

144
 3. Active and Attribute Variables

1. Active variable : A researcher can manipulate

the variables. Eg. Service delivery, teaching
model, quantity of food etc.
2. Attribute variable : A researcher can not
manipulate the variables. Eg. Attitude,
religion, age, perception etc.

145
 4. Discrete and Continuous Variables

a) Discrete ( Categorical ) variables: measured in nominal or ordinal

measurement scales. They are of three types:
1. Constant : Constant variable can have only one category like :
Chair, Jeep, tree etc.
2. Dichotomous : Variables can have two categories like : rich or
poor, male or female, etc.
3. Polytomous : Variable can be divided into more than two
categories. Eg. Education ( School, Higher education and
University), attitude (strongly favorable, favorable, uncertain,
unfavorable and strongly unfavorable
b) Continuous Variables : Continuity in their measurement. Age can
be measured in year, months, day and income can be measured
in Rs. and paisa.
Eg. time, distance, weight

146
 Concept of Measurement

• Measurement is foundation of any scientific

research.
• It involves assigning the numbers to objects,
observations or events according to rules.
• A particular procedure of assigning numbers or
symbols to measure something is called scale of
measurement.

147
 Characteristics of Good Measurement
Validity
• Content validity
• Criterion related validity
• Construct validity
Reliability
• Stability
• Equivalence
• Internal consistency
 Contd…
Practicability
• Economy
• Convenience
• interpretability
 Scaling
Scale is a range, consisting of the highest point and the
lowest point with some intermediate values in
between.
In research we often face measurement problem
specially when the concepts to be measured are
complex and abstract and we do not possess the
standardized measurement tools.
When measuring the attitude and opinion, we face the
problem of valid measurement.
 Scaling describes the procedure of assigning numbers
to various degrees of opinion, attitude and other
concepts.
150
 Measurement Scale
1.Nominal – Classification ( all are equal)
2. Ordinal – Order ( Greater or lesser value but
not compared in a constant term )
3. Interval – Distance ( Distance between
variables can be compared)
4. Ratio – Origin ( Variable has meaningful value)

151
 1. Nominal Scales
In nominal measurement, the numerical values just "name"
the attribute uniquely values to help categorization (identify &
classify)
•It contains named or labeled categories that are not ordered or
ranked,
• It is used to measure qualitative variables.
•It is weakest scale. It cannot be added or subtracted.
Eg. Gender of respondents: Male = 1, female = 2
Religion of respondents: Hindu =1, Christian =2, Buddhist =3,
Muslim = 4

152
 2. Ordinal Scale
• Ordinal scales have all of the requirements of nominal scales but
also include the property of order.
• If the categories of a scale are ordered, they constitute an ordinal
scale.
• This scale is used to measure qualitative variables that can be
subjected to nonparametric statistical tests.
• Nothing is known about the size of the interval between any two
numerals.
• Eg. Four restaurants can be ranked from most-liked to least-liked. They can be
assigned the numbers 4, 3, 2 and 1.
In an organisation, post can be arrange in order like: Manager – 5, Officer -4,
Assistant -2, Office Helper – 2, Guard - 1
Students can be order as per their marks secured in exam :
1 – Biswash, 2- Devi, 3- Purna, 4- Jamuna
153
 Ordinal Scale …
• Numbers are used to place objects in order.
• But, there is no information regarding the differences (intervals)
between points on the scale.
• If roll numbers are assigned as per their marks secured in exam:
Roll no 1 is not as twice clever as roll no 2 but roll no. 1 has more
knowledge than roll no. 2. We can't measure how much more
knowledge he has.
• Likert type scale is used to measure the qualities of variables
like:
(1) Most satisfied, (2) Satisfied, (3) Neutral, (4) Dissatisfied, (5)
Most Dissatisfied.

154
 Contd…
Attitude measurement using Likert Scale :
It is also known as summated ratings are popular means for
measuring attitudes. Respondents are asked to express
aggrement or disaggrement in five point scale.
• Last topic of lecture series of Prof. Sharma was
 Very Interesting
 Interesting
 Satisfactory
 Unsatisfactory
 A failure

• The MBA program of Pokhara University is good

Strongly agree5- Agree4- Undecided3- Disagree2- Strongly disagree1
155
 Contd…
5.Multiple Choice - Likert type rating scale
Very Good Satisfactory Unsatisfactory Worse
Good

Room service

Menu
Behavior of
staffs
Accessible from
main road

156
 3. Interval Scale
• Interval scales have all the requirements of
ordinal scales with the added benefit of a known,
fixed quantity as the distance between items.
• An interval scale has a constant unit that makes
the distance between values meaningful.
• Eg. when we measure temperature the distance
from 30-40 is same as distance from 70-80. The
interval between values is interpretable.
Calendar year is another example.
157
 Interval Scale…
• In interval measurement the distance
between attributes does have meaning.
• Mean and standard deviation, Correlation - r
Regression, Analysis of variance, Factor
analysis
and a whole range of advanced multivariate
and modeling techniques can be used.

158
 4. Ratio Scale
• A ratio scale has all of the properties of an interval
scale plus a true zero point.
• The importance of having a true zero point is that
ratios of values on the scale can be meaningfully
constructed.
• It represents the actual amounts of variables.
• Measure of physical dimensions like height : 5.3 feet,
weight: 49.5 kgs, length : 340 kms, Salary : Rs. 50,000
per month, age : 21 years etc.
• We can divide between figures and the ratio between
figures gives a significant meaning.
159
 Different scale of Measurement
Scales Operation Descriptive Statistics
Nomina Counting Frequency in each category,
l Scale
percentage and mode
Ordinal Ranking Median, mean,
Scale percentile

Interval Arithmetic
Scale operation Mean,standard
deviation, variance
Ratio All operation Different statistical
Scale measures

160
 Changing the Scale Format
By changing the format of the questions, a researcher can ask
essentially the same question but obtain different type of
data.
Ordinal Interval Ratio
What is your What is your What is your
monthly monthly monthly
expenditure? expenditure? expenditure?

a. Low a. Rs. 5000 to My monthly

b. Medium 10,000 expenditure is
c. High b. Rs. 10,00 to Rs.85,980
Rs.15,000
c. Rs. 15,000-
20,000

161
 Scale of Measurement….
Scale Scale of
Scale Qualities Example(s)
Level Measurement

1 Nominal None Names, Lists of words

Likert Scale, Anything rank

2 Ordinal Magnitude
ordered

Magnitude
3 Interval Temperature
Equal Intervals

Magnitude
Age, Height, Weight,
4 Ratio Equal Intervals
Percentage
Absolute Zero
162
 Selection of Measurement Scale
We have to consider following points for a
decision:
• Research objectives
• Response types
• Data properties
• Number of dimension
• Method of construction

163
 Measurement Problems / Sources of
Measurement Error

1. Respondents
2. Situational factors during the measurement or interviews
3. Interviewer
4. Instruments used for data collection

Problems emerge when,

- respondents do not understand questions
- respondents do not have information
- respondents’ attitude may not be right
- respondents inability to answer.
164
 Conditions for / Basis of good scales
1. Short, clear
2. Clear instructions
3. Unbiased
4. Adequate categories 3-5-7-9 scales
5. Proper sequencing
6. No pressure to memory / thinking
7. Good wording
8. Clarity of objective
9. Proper sample selection

165
Scales commonly used in business research

• Likert scale
• Graphic rating scales
• Itemized rating scale
• Rank order rating scale
• Semantic differential scale
• Other simple scales
 Simple category questions
 Multiple choice questions
 Open ended questions
Sources of measurement problems
• Related to respondents
• Related to situation
• Related to measurer
• Related to instruments
 Sampling

Some research questions

require sample data to
generalise about all the
cases.

Sample is drawn from its

population.

168
 Concept &Types of Population (N)
A population is the entire group of items or
individuals in an area under study. Each and every
unit of population or universe is called element and
an element constitutes one case for analysis. There
are basically two types of population.
1. Finite population: The number of items or the units
under the study is known or fixed.
2. Infinite population: The number of units of the items
is unknown.

169
 Sample & Sampling
• Census Study : If all the population is included under the study it is
called a census study.
• Sample: Portion or finite sub set of units of population under study
( known as "n").
• Sampling : Process of selection of sample from population.
• Sampling unit: The smallest unit of population to be sampled is
called sampling unit.
• Sampling frame: List of all population elements from which the
sample will be drawn.
• Sample size: Number of elements included in a sample.
• Population parameter: The population indicator or characteristics,
which has to be investigated. E.g. µ,σ²
• Statistics: Estimators used for estimating population parameters
using survey data. E.g. X, s² 170
Figure 7.1 Population, sample and individual cases
171
 Sampling process

1. Define the Population

2. Specify the Sampling Frame

3. Specify the Sampling Unit

172
 Sampling process

4. Select the Sampling Method

5. Determine the Sample Size

6. Specify the Sampling Plan

173
 Sampling process

7. Select the Sample

8. Review the sampling process

174
 Features of Good Sampling
1. Representativeness: Sample should represent the
whole population.
2. Adequacy: The size of sample should be sufficient.
3. Independence: All items of the universe should have
the same chance of being selected.
4. Homogeneity: The characteristics of population
should be similar to the sample drawn from the
population.

175
 Sampling Techniques
Probability or Non-probability or
representative judgemental sampling
sampling

176
 Types of samples

Probability Non-Probability
Samples Samples

1. Simple Random 1. Convenience

2. Stratified Random 2. Quota
3. Cluster 3. Judgmental
4. Systematic 4. Snowball

177
 Probability or representative
sampling
• There is equal chances, or probability of each case
being selected from the population.
• Selection process is guided by certain rules, system,
norms and values.
• There is less chance of biasness.

178
 Non-Probability or judgemental
sampling
• There is not equal chance of selection of each case
from the total population.
• Selection is totally depends on the researcher’s
experience, judgment, convenience and as per the
demand of the situation.
• There is more chance of biasness.

179
Random /probability sampling
1. Simple random sampling
2. Stratified sampling
a) Proportionate stratified sampling
b) Disproportionate sampling
3. Cluster sampling
a) Single stage
b) Multistage ( two or more than two stage)
4. Systematic sampling

180
 1. Simple Random Sampling
It is most commonly used technique.In this method
every unit of population has equal probability or
chance of being selected as a sample.

Random sampling involves

selecting the sample at random
from the sampling frame using
either random number tables, or a
computer.

181
 Simple Random Sampling
• There is only one type of sampling unit (e.g. all commercial
banks of Nepal).
• One needs a complete list of population. For example to be
obtained from NRB for the purpose of the research.
• Golden rule: Each and every element of the population has to
have the same probability of being in the sample!
There are two methods of selecting samples in this technique:
a. Random sampling without replacement: In this case, once the
sample is drawn, it is NOT replaced again. Therefore, for the
consecutive unit , the chance of being selected as a sample
increases.
b. Random sampling with replacement: In this case, an unit or
sample once drawn is again replaced.Its chance of being
selected in a sample is always equal each time.
182
 Simple Random Sampling
Advantages:
• No possibility of personal bias affecting the results
because the selection of items in the sample
depends entirely on chance.
• It represents the universe in a better way.
Disadvantages:
• Expensive and time consuming especially when the
population is large.
• Omission of any unit fails whole method.

183
 2. Stratified random Sampling
 Stratification is the process of classifying
population into sub-populations based on a
certain characteristics of the population.
 It is possible only when the researchers have
some level of information about the population.
Nonetheless in some cases stratification can be
based on limited information.
 If distance is an important factor that affects the
relationships between other factors than a
region may be classified as core, or market
center, medium distance and far from the 184
 Stratified random Sampling
 Like in simple random sampling, one needs a complete list of
population members that are differentiated into the different
strata.
 For example: BBA/MBA students from outside Kathmandu
and inside Kathmandu.
 The main aim of stratification in sampling design is to improve
the representation of sample through creating the
homogeneity within the stratum and heterogeneity between
the strata.
 It is used when the researcher knows that the population has
sub-groups (strata) and members of the groups are
heterogeneous.
 It is used to avoid the chances of non selection from different
characters in same ratio or chances of selection of same types
of unit. 185
 Stratified random Sampling

S1+S2+S3= N
n1+n2+n3= n

Proportionate Sampling: n2
n1/S1=n2/S2=n3/S3
Strata II
Disproportionate
Sampling:
S2
n1/S1≠≠n2/S2 ≠≠ n3/S3

N
n3
Strata I Strata III
n1 S1 S3

186
 Stratified random Sampling
Advantages:
• It ensures that specific groups (strata) are included
proportionately in the sample (like their proportions in
the population)
• One can randomly select more of a certain stratum
that is not very frequent in the population.
• As compared to simple random sampling, the stratified
sampling better reflects the characteristics of the
population and reduces sampling error. However the
choice of stratification variable is crucial, the choice
must be guided by the objective of stratification.
187
 3. Cluster Sampling
• This is commonly used sampling technique when we have to
cover large geographical area and listing of all the elements in
the population is cumbersome and time taking.
• Cluster sample offer more heterogenity within groups and
more homogeneity among groups- the reverse of what we
find in stratified random sampling, where there is
homogeneity within each group heterogeneity across groups.
• Random samples of successive clusters of subjects are
chosen, e.g. bank branches, then certain credit groups, then
individual members of credit groups.
• Schools, VDCs, Municipalities, Area, Farmers Groups etc. are
examples of already grouped elements.The group of elements
can be considered as sub-population.
188
 Cluster Sampling

• Though it is impractical to list all the elements of the

population, it may also be possible to find the lists of
elements within the selected groups.
• So instead of selecting elements or unit of analysis at
the initial stage, sampling can be done considering
the groups called clusters either by random
sampling, systematic sampling or stratified sampling.
• Cluster sampling makes random selection feasible
even if no single list of population members exists,
but local lists do.
189
 Cluster Sampling

Sometimes elements to be selected first round in a

broad area and re-selected under this area is called
multi stage sampling.
For eg. Performance of the public school in Nepal. First,
selection of school in regional basis (say Mid Dev.
region) and then select a district (Kathmandu )

190
 Cluster Sampling
VDCs

HHHHHHHH
HHHHHHHH
HHHHHHHH
HHHHHHHH
HHHHHHHH
Far HH

Members Groups Households

191
 4. Systematic Sampling
• Systematic sampling is used when the population under study is
more evenly distributed. It is similar to simple random sampling.
• Based on the required size of sample a sampling interval is
calculated and then every Kth item is selected based on that
interval.
• The first unit is selected randomly from the first interval.
E.g. Population or universe(N) =150
Sample size(n) = 15, Sampling interval(k) = N/n=150/15=10
Number of items in each interval =10
Say 1,2,3,4,5,6,78,9,10. Select first unit from this interval
randomly, suppose the number is 7 , then other units to be
inluded in the sample are: 7,17,27,37,47

192
 Systematic Sampling
• To use systematic sampling, the population must be
listed in a random order. The sampling fraction would
be f = 20/100 = 20%.
• In this case, the interval size, k, is equal to N/n =
100/20 = 5.
• Now, select a random integer from 1 to 5. In our
example, imagine that you chose 4. Now, to select the
sample, start with the 4th unit in the list and take
every Kth unit (every 5th, because k=5). You would
have sampling units 4, 9, 14, 19, and so on upto 100.

193
 The Relative Advantages and Disadvantages
Technique Advantages Disadvantages

Sometimes a list of the entire

Theoretically most accurate. population is unavailable or
Random sampling
Influenced only by chance. practical considerations prevent
random sampling.

Similar to random sampling.

The system can sometimes be
Systematic sampling Often easier than random
biased.
sampling.
There may still be biases not
Can be used when random
Cluster Sampling controlled by the cluster
sampling is impossible.
system.
Ensures large enough sample to
subdivide on important
Can be biased if strata are given
variables.
false weights, unless weighting
Stratified sampling Needed when population is too
procedure is used for overall
large to list.
analysis.
Can be combined with other
techniques.
194
 Non Probability
Sampling/Non-
Random Sampling

1.Convenience
3.Judgmental/
/ Man-in-the- 2. Quota 4. Snowball
Purposive
street

195
 1. Convenience Sampling
(Also known as "accidental" sampling or "man-in-the-
street" sampling)

• In this method, a sample is selected using some easily

accessible or convenience sources. Note that it is not
scientific method but used due to convenient to the
sampler.
• Easily accessible sources means easily available lists
such as telephone, directory. Voter list, automobile
registration records etc. However, it is used specially
when the population is not clearly defined and
sampling units are not clear.
196
 2. Quota Sampling

In simple term, quota sampling can be considered as

stratified sampling in which the probability principle
is not applied to select the sample units. Thus, it is a
type of judgmental sampling. Some quotas are set up
according to some criteria and selection of quota is
made according to the personal judgment of the
investigator or high-level authorities.

197
 3. Judgmental Sampling
• Judgmental sampling, also called purposive sampling, is
another form of convenience sampling where subjects
are handpicked from the accessible population. This
technique leaves much to be desired because of its
inherent biasness.
• Subjects usually are selected using judgmental sampling
because the researcher believes that certain subjects are
likely to benefit or be more compliant.
• For example, in the study of performance of MBA
students on their employment, researcher may select
more sample of MBA from Pokhara University than MBA
from Purbanchal University.
198
 4. Snowball Sampling
• Snowball sampling is a technique used to identify
potential subjects when appropriate candidates for
study are hard to locate
• For example, if locating an adequate number of HIV
infected people is difficult, it is possible to request
assistance from HIV infected patient to help to
identify people with similar conditions. This process
is known as snowballing or chain referral.

199
 Types of errors
1. Sampling errors
2. Non-sampling errors

200
 1. Sampling Error

Sampling error is any type of bias that is attributable

to mistakes in either drawing a sample or determining
the sample size

201
 Sampling Error

• Survey results are typically subject to some error.

• The term "error means systematic biases as well as
random errors.

202
 Sampling Error
• Sampling error or estimation error is the error caused
by observing a sample instead of the whole population.
• The sampling error can be found by subtracting the
value of a parameter from the value of a statistic.
Let, average age of population = 21 years
Average age of Sample = 20 years
Difference in age 21-20 = 1 year is sampling error.

203
 Sampling Error
• Sampling error decreases with increase in the size of
sample and decreases if population is more
homogenous .

• Sampling error can be reduced taking a large enough

random sample from the population.

204
 2. Non Sampling Error
Non-sampling errors are caused by other problems in
data collection and processing. They include,
1. Over coverage: Inclusion of data from outside of the
population.
2. Under coverage: Mistake in preparing sampling frame.
If sampling frame does not include elements in the
population.

205
 Reasons for Sampling
• Lowers cost
• Provides greater accuracy
• Helps to greater speed of data collection
• Inaccessible population
 Chapter -V

Data Collection
and Analysis
 Why Data is Required?

• Research is scientific method of collecting,

organizing, presenting, analyzing and
interpreting the numerical information to
assist in making effective and efficient
decision.

• Data should be collected carefully to meet the

purpose for which the inquiry was planned.
208
 Types of Data

Data is value collected through record keeping or

polling, observing, or measuring. It includes texts
and numbers, figures & maps, photographs &
pictures.
It may be classified in various ways:
• Primary vs. Secondary data
• Internal vs. External data
• Subjective vs. Objective data
• Qualitative vs. Quantitative data
209
 Primary Sources of Data

• Questionnaire
• Focus Group Discussion
• Observation
• Autobiographies & diaries
• Interviews, surveys and field works
• Letters and correspondences, speeches,
internet and e-mail communications
210
 Secondary Sources of Data

• First formal appearance of result

• Articles published in scientific journals
reporting experimental research results
• Proceeding of meetings, conferences and
symposia
• Dissertations or theses
• Census, economic statistics etc.
211
 Internal & External Data
1. Internal data : Every firm, organization or institution
generates certain data which are collected internally.
These data are used to run the day to day business of
the organization. Data related to production, sales,
profit, employees numbers and turnover, bad debts,
advertisement expenses etc.
2. External data : External data are collected from outside
sources. An organization may collect data of production
& sales of similar industries, international trade,
government economic policy and macro economic
indicators.
212
 Methods of Collecting Primary Data

1. Questionnaire method : sent through post, email

and direct through enumerators.
2. Observation techniques: Participative and Non
Participative techniques
3. Interview method : Direct personal interview ( in
home, telephone & internet interview) and in-
depth interview, personal interviews
4. Focus Group discussion

213
 Questionnaire
• Questionnaire is a general term that includes
all techniques of data collection in which each
person is asked to respond to the same set of
questions in a pre-determined order.
• It therefore includes both structured interviews
and telephone questionnaires as well as those
in which the questions are answered without
an interviewer being present.

214
 Questionnaire
• As each person (respondent) is asked to respond to the
same set of questions, it provides an efficient way of
collecting responses from a large sample prior to
quantitative analyses.
• Questionnaire can be used as the only data collection
method, but also it is usually better to link them with
other methods, such as in-depth interviews.
• The design of a questionnaire differs according to how
it is administered and the amount of contact you have
with the respondents.

215
 Questionnaire Design
• Objective of questionnaire is used to obtain
following information of respondents:
1. intention, 2. attitude, 3. demographic
characteristics, 4. behavior etc.
• Designing of questionnaire is technical job.
• Questionnaire should be straightforward so
that everyone can understand easily and
sufficient information can be obtained.

216
 Questionnaire Design…
Type of Questions:

Open Ended Questions– Allow the respondents to answer them in

any way they choose.
Closed Questions– Restrict respondents within the given
alternatives.
Structured Questions - Respondents have to answer within the given
alternatives.
Unstructured Questions - Respondents can give any answer as per
their desire. No restriction to answer.
Long vs. short questions – Long question increases the cost and time
as well as discourage respondent to complete the questionnaire.
217
 Questionnaire Design...
Wording – The word used in questionnaire should not be ambiguous
or complex. Easily understandable word to be used.
Questions should be logically ordered depending on the nature of the
research like:
• From general to specific
•From easy to difficult
•From Factual to abstract
Physical appearance:
Should be attractive, neat and clean, size of letter to be readable,
enough space for answer, appropriate introductions and instructions.
Also consider , quality of paper and size of paper, margin and spacing.

218
 Principles of Questionnaire writing (Quality of Good
Questionnaire)

• Target the vocabulary and grammar to the population surveyed

As far as possible don’t use jargons and unnecessary abbreviations.
•Avoid vagueness and confusion :
Do you eat meat regularly?
Do you withdraw your deposit from this bank regularly?
• Avoid leading questions :
I am a leader of this college, I hope you will help me, Do you?
• Avoid double barrel questions : More than one questions combined
Do you eat fruits and milk each day? Yes / No
Do you use ATM card and credit card of this bank? Yes / No
•Avoid technical words :
In your opinion which banks dividend payout ratio is higher?
219
 Contd…
• Avoid ‘recall dependent’ question:
In which subject did you obtain highest mark in class 8?
Do you think the current GDP growth is better than that of
2052?
• Provide enough alternative:
Marital Status : Single and Married ( but if the research area is
on social issue other alternatives also should be used widow,
divorced and separated )
• Aware on sensitive issues social values & ethical issues
Religion, political belief, personal secrecy etc.
• End the questionnaire in a gentle and friendly manner
Express your gratitude to your respondents for their time and
effort
220
 Components of Questionnaire
The major components of a questionnaire fall
into three basic categories
1. Explanation information
2. Basic information
3. Classification information

221
 Components of Questionnaire
1. Explanation information : The researcher
provides explanation information to the
respondents to explain the purpose of the study.
This information is usually given at the beginning
of the questionnaire in the form of a letter or
instructions. Explanation information states the
purpose of the study, makes an appeal for
responses, and provides information on
completing the questionnaire properly.

[See the questionnaire]

222
 Components of Questionnaire
2. Basic Information: This is the main part of the
questionnaire. Basic information desired from
the study refers to that information which is
needed to solve the problem which prompted
the study to be undertaken. This part of the
questionnaire covers all the necessary subjects
under investigation adequately.

[See the questionnaire]

223
 Components of Questionnaire
3. Classification Information
At the end of the questionnaire, a section on “
classification information” or “personal information”
can be designed. However, sometimes it can be
added immediately after explanation information
also. Most of the commonly gathered classification
information include age, gender, education, marital
status, family income, occupation and so on.

[See the questionnaire]

224
Types of questionnaire

225
 Example : Likert Type Questions
Please check the number that corresponds to
your answer to the statement provided and
interpreted as follows. Please indicate the extent
to which you agree or disagree with the
following statement about the services you
received from your bank in your opinion.
[1=Strongly Agree, 2=Agree, 3=Neutral,
4=Disagree, 5=Strongly Disagree]

226
 Contd…
S.N. Reliability (timely and accurate) 1 2 3 4 5

a. The bank shows fair value

disclosure for loan.
b. The bank maintains error
free records.
c. The bank is able to deliver
all services in time.
d. The bank maintains every
transaction very
confidential.

227
 Contd…

S.N. Employee Motivation 1 2 3 4 5

a. The measurement system of performance

and incentives in the bank encouraged to
work well
b. The bank is keen to measure and reward
employee performance that contributes to
achieving its vision
c. The bank depends on the use of data and
information collected from staff to improve
their jobs
d. The bank informs the staff about the
importance of service roles that they do

e. Bank staffs who provide excellent services

get a good reward

228
 Contd…
S.N. Customer Satisfaction 1 2 3 4 5

a. The bank’s forms and slips are

easy to fill.
b. The bank provides timely service.

c. Bank charges are clearly

explained.
d. Internet banking and SMS
banking are easy to use
e. I am satisfied with the ATM
service of the bank.

229
 Interview Schedules
Interview means a purposeful discussion between
two or more people.
• Structured interviews
– use questionnaires and standardized questions
• Semi-structured interviews
– use non-standardized questions. Researcher uses
themes as a guide
• Unstructured interviews
– use non-standardized questions. Totally informal in
approach. Heavy use of open ended questions.
230
 Principle of Research Interviews
(Conducting Effective Interview)

• opening the interview

• using appropriate language
• questioning and talking
• listening
• testing and summarising understanding
• noticing behavioural signals
• recording data

231
Types of Interviews

Research Interviews

One-to-many
.Focus group interviews

232
 Methods of observation
• complete participation
– researcher attempts to become a member of the
group being studied, and does not reveal true
purpose
• complete observation
– watching what is going on, but does not become a
participant
• observer as participant/Participant observation
– the researcher has the role of a spectator/ he or she
may act as a member of the group; although he or
she is really not one. 233
 Advantages of observation system

• Good for explaining what is going on in social

situations
• Heightened the researcher’s awareness of
significant social processes
• Provide the opportunity to experience the
emotions of those being studied
• All data collected are likely to be useful

234
 Disadvantages of observation system

• Time consuming
• Poses difficult ethical dilemmas
• Can be high levels of conflict for the researcher
(are you a colleague or a researcher first?)
• Closeness to situation can lead to researcher
bias
• Access can be difficult
• Data recording can be difficult
235
 Focus Group Discussion

As the name indicates, a focus group is a group of individuals

selected and assembled by researchers to discuss and
comment on, from personal experience, the topic that is the
subject of research. A focus group generally involves 6-10
persons.

Focus groups have been extensively used in marketing

research, in political campaigning, and as part of public
policy and communications research. More recently, it has
been used in social, health, linguistics, and environmental
research studies.
236
 Contd…
The following are some examples where focus groups can
be effectively used:
• Assessing the impact of advertisements before going
public.
• Exploring people’s attitudes to issues such as
consumerism, social reconstruction of gender, social
and ethical responsibilities of business.
• Investigating public perceptions of the environment
and public responses to environment related policies.
• Investigating public attitudes and sensitivities towards
growing unplanned urbanization in Nepal.
237
Data Analysis

238
 How to Analyze the Data?

1. Data Editing : All questionnaire which are filled up

and received from respondent may not be accurate,
precise, complete, uniform and consistent. There is
some lacking of accuracy, to find these inaccuracy and
incompleteness and to eliminate the errors of filled
questionnaire, data should be edited.
2. Data Entry : It is the process of conversion of
information gathered from secondary or primary
sources to a medium for viewing and manipulation.

239
3. Data Tabulation : After classification of data on the
basis of its characteristics like age, gender, caste,
literacy, income level, religion, nationality, occupation,
etc. data should be summarized. Tabulation is the
process of summarization of data in rows and columns
having special characteristics in a piece of paper. Such
representation of data in orderly and easily
comprehensible fashion is called tabulation.

240
4.Data Analysis : It is a mathematical operation to
investigate the properties of data. Such examination
of data relies on a range of statistical theory as well
as mathematical calculation. Analysis of data is a
process of inspecting, cleaning, transforming, and
modeling data with the goal of highlighting useful
information , suggesting conclusions, and supporting
decision making. Data analysis has multiple facets
and approaches, encompassing diverse techniques
under a variety of names, in different business,
science, and social science domains.

241
 Why is it necessary to analyze the data?
To measure the variables, to explore phenomena, to
summarize data / describe data, identify relationship
between variables, compare variables, examine the
association between variables, forecast outcomes, test
hypothesis and explain the phenomenon
An analysis must have four elements:
1. Data/information (what)
2. Scientific reasoning/argument (what? who? where?
how? what happens?)
3.Finding (what results?)
4.Lesson/conclusion (so what? so how? therefore,…)
242
 Basic guide to data analysis
• “Analyse” NOT “narrate”, Go back to research flow chart, Break
down into research objectives and research questions, Identify
phenomena to be investigated, Visualise the “expected” answers,
Validate the answers with data, Don’t tell something not supported
by data.
• Data mining : Data mining is a particular data analysis technique
that focuses on modeling and knowledge discovery for predictive
rather than purely descriptive purposes. Business intelligence covers
data analysis that relies heavily on aggregation, focusing on business
information.
• Qualitative data analysis : Qualitative research uses qualitative data
analysis (QDA) to analyze text, interview transcripts, photographs,
art, field notes of (ethnographic) observations, et cetera.

243
 The process of data analysis

1. Assemble the data

2. Bringing data into order ( editing, coding, tabulations,
percentage)
3. Summarize the data ( statistical summarization,
measures of central tendency, dispersion, graphical
presentation)
4. Select appropriate statistical methods
a. Examine difference
b. Analyze causal relationship
c. Investigate associations
244
 Statistics

Descriptive Statistics Inferential Statistics

Mea
Mea sure
Freq Perc sure Distr of
uenc enta of ibuti Cent Parametric Non-parametric
y ge Spre on ral
ad Tend
ency

245
 Descriptive Statistics

• Descriptive statistics is the term given to the

analysis of data that helps describe, show or
summarize data in a meaningful way such that, for
example, patterns might emerge from the data.
• It does not make conclusions beyond the data we
have analyzed or reach conclusions regarding any
hypotheses we might have made.
• It provides a clear, concise, useful and informative
picture of a mass of numerical figures.

246
 Descriptive Statistics…

1. Frequency: It shows the number of times a particular

phenomenon occurs.
2. Percentage : Percentage can calculated on the basis
of the data of row, column and total.
3. Measures of central tendency : These are tools of
describing the central position of a frequency
distribution for a group of data. We can describe this
central position using a number of statistics,
including the mode, median, and mean.

247
 Descriptive Statistics…
4. Measures of spread: These are ways of summarizing a group
of data by describing how spread out the scores are. For
example, the mean score of 100 students may be 64.6 out of
100. However, not all students will have scored 64.6 marks.
Rather, their scores will be spread out. Some will be lower
and others higher. Measures of spread help us to summarize
how spread out these scores are. To describe this spread, a
number of statistics are available to us, including the range,
quartiles, absolute deviation, variance and standard
deviation.
5. Standard Deviation : Take each observation’s difference from
the mean, square it, add all such squared differences, and
divide the result by number of observations.
6. Range: Difference between the two most extreme value.
248
 Inferential Statistics

Inferential statistics deal with drawing

conclusions and, in some cases, making
predictions about the properties of a population
based on information obtained from a sample.
While descriptive statistics provide information
about the central tendency, dispersion,
skewness, and kurtosis of data, inferential
statistics allow making broader statements
about the relationships between data.
249
 Importance / Advantages
• Inferential statistics are frequently used to answer cause-and-
effect questions and make predictions.
• They are also used to investigate differences between and
among groups.
• Provide more detailed information than descriptive statistics.
• Yield insight into relationships between variables.
• Reveal causes and effects and make predictions.
• Generate convincing support for a given theory.
• Generally accepted due to widespread use in business and
academia.

Disadvantages
• It is quite difficult to learn and use properly
• Vulnerable to be misused and abused 250
 Parametric versus non-parametric
The basic distinction for parametric versus non-
parametric is:
• If your measurement scale is nominal or
ordinal then you use non-parametric statistics
• If you are using interval or ratio scales you use
parametric statistics.

251
 Types of Inferential Analysis

Tools of Non-parametric Test : Inferential procedures that are

not based on parameters, which require fewer requirements
be satisfied to perform the tests. They do not require that the
population follow a specific type of distribution.
• Distribution : It measures the distribution of population.
• Correlation : It describes the correlation between two
variables. Positive, negative and no linear correlation.
• Association : It describes the relationship between two
variables. Coefficient of association vary from 0 to 1 and 0 to -
1.
• Variance: It is used to test for difference among more than
two groups or data.

252
 Types of Inferential Analysis (Contd…)

Tools of Parametric Test: Inferential procedures that rely on

testing claims regarding parameters such as the
population mean μ, the population standard deviation, σ,
or the population proportion, p. Many times certain
requirements had to be met before we could use those
procedures.
• Estimation : Estimation statistics are used to make
estimates about population values based on sample data.
• Hypothesis Testing : An hypothesis is a statement or
explanation that is suggested by knowledge or
observation but has not, yet, been proved or disproved.
• Prediction : It is used to predict the future trends.
253
Concept and importance of qualitative analysis

Qualitative research is a well-established

academic tradition in anthropology, sociology,
history and geography. Qualitative methods are
generally associated with evaluation of the
social dimensions of development programs,
particularly programs which have explicit social
development aims. However any simple
dichotomy between quantitative = economic
and qualitative = social needs to be questioned.
254
 Importance of qualitative analysis
• A more accurate reflection of complex reality
• More balanced representation of different stakeholders
• A better understanding of processes
• Better relationship with respondents and more continuous
contact leading to more accurate information
• Better understanding of difference and ability to get sensitive
information
• Information may be more reliable if the investigation is not
influenced by expectations or fear of consequences.
• Quantitative and qualitative research methods differ primarily
in their analytical objectives, the types of questions they
create, the types of data collection instruments they use, the
forms of data they produce and the degree of flexibility built
into study design. 255
 Methods of analyzing qualitative data
Mainly there are three methods of analyzing
qualitative data:
1)Content Analysis
2) Narrative Analysis
3) Thematic Analysis

256
 Methods of analyzing qualitative data…
1) Content Analysis: It is concerned with the
classification, organization and comparison of the
contents of documents or communication. It is used
when you want to analyze a written or spoken record of
events or items. It is sometimes referred to as
documentary activity or information analysis. Other than
documents, a content analysis is also useful for analyzing
the contents of case studies, field notes and open-ended
answers from questionnaires and interviews. The
content analysis has three important characteristics
which are : 1)Objectivity, 2)Systematic and 3)Generality
257
 Methods of analyzing qualitative data…
Guidelines for content analysis : The following guidelines
should be kept in mind while undergoing through the
process of content analysis:
• Clear operational definition of the units of analysis
• Clear definition of the response categories
• The materials must be thoroughly surveyed and analyzed
• Categories under analysis should be fixed and specific
• Impartiality should be maintained
• The validity of the content analysis should be assessed

258
 Methods of analyzing qualitative data…
2) Narrative Analysis : This is another widely used method of
qualitative analysis. Narrative or stories occur when one or more
speakers engage in sharing and recounting an experience or
event. The respondents give a detailed account of themselves and
are encouraged to tell their story rather than answer a
predetermined list of questions. People tell stories to help
organize and make of their lives. These narrative or stories may be
in the following forms:
• Oral or written
• Very short or long
• Told as a way to share one’s life stories
• Focus on events and the meaning of these events for those
experiencing them

259
 Methods of analyzing qualitative data…
Text or narrative data thus come in many different forms and from
variety of sources. Your data may come from many people, a few
individuals , or a single case. Narrative analysis aims to help
researchers identify and analyze the wealth of rationales, practices ,
and values of narrative enquiry for understanding human
development. Any of the following may produce narrative data that
requires analysis:
• Open-end questions
• Individuals interviews
• Discussion group
• Observations
• Documents and reports
• Stories
• Case studies
260
 Methods of analyzing qualitative data…
3) Thematic Analysis : Thematic analysis is seen as
another foundational method of qualitative analysis. This
analysis is a method that is often used to analyze data in
primary qualitative research. It is used for identifying,
analyzing, and reporting patterns(themes) within data.
Thematic analysis has four stages:
• Reviewing the relevant previous literature for themes
• The coding of text “line –by- line”
• The development of “descriptive themes”
• The generation of “analytical themes”
261
 Methods of analyzing qualitative data…

Thematic analysis is thus a search for themes

that emerge as being important to the
description of the phenomenon. The process
involves the identification of themes through “
careful reading and re-reading of the data”. It is
a form of pattern recognition within the data,
where emerging themes become the categories
for analysis.

262
 Difference between quantitative and qualitative analysis

Quantitative Analysis Qualitative Analysis

• It is objective. • It is subjective.
• Explanation through • Explanation through words.
numbers.
• Mostly Deductive • Mostly Inductive reasoning.
reasoning.
• Predefined variables and • Most often variables and
measurement. measurement are not predefined.
• Mostly cause effect • Mostly description, meaning.
relationship.
263
 Presenting data in Table, Graph & Diagrams

• Histogram: A histogram consists of a series of rectangles

drawn next to each other without any space between them,
each representing the frequency of a category of sub
category. It can be drawn both categorical and continuous
variables.
• Pie charts: Data are displaying in circle. Full circle is
assuming 100% population, it is sub divided as per the size
of the variables and display in differently.
• Bar Chart : The bar chart or diagram is used for displaying
categorical data. It is used for variables measured on
nominal or ordinal scales. The discrete categories are
usually displayed along the x axis and number or percentage
of respondents on the y axis. 264
 Contd…
• Stacked bar chart: It is drawn only for categorical data. The
section of the bar show the proportion of the variables
they represent in the relation to one another.
• Line diagram or trend curve: A line diagram is a useful way
of visually conveying the changes when long term trends in
a phenomena or situation need to be studied or the
changes in the sub category of a variable is measured on an
interval or a ratio scale. It is useful to illustrating trends in
birth or death rates, and changes in population size.
• The scattergram: The scattergram is effective tool to display
the how one variable changes in relation to a change in the
other variable. Data should be measured on either interval
or ratio scales.
265
 Advantages of Tabulation
• Helps to make data easily understandable
• Facilitates comparison
• Saves time and energy
• Avoids repetition
• Can easily remember
 Main parts of a Table
• Number of table
• Title of table
• Column caption
• Title of the row
• Body of table
• Head note
• Footnotes
• sources
 Types of Table
• Simple table
• Complex table
o Two way table
o Three way table
o Manifold table
General Rules for Constructing Diagram
• Title
• Proper proportion between width and height
• Selection of scale
• Neatness and cleanliness
• Footnotes
• Selection of diagram
• Simplicity
• Index
 Types of Bar Diagram
• Simple bar diagram
• Sub-divided bar diagram
• Percentage bar diagram
• Multiple bar diagram
 Types of Graph
• Time series graph
• Scattered diagram
• Graphs presenting functional relationship
1. Linear relationship
2. Non-linear relationship
 Chapter-VII

Writing Proposals and

Project Reports
 What is Research Proposal ?
• A proposal is an individual’s or company’s offer to
produce a product or deliver a service to a
potential buyer or sponsor.
• It describes what, why, how and where to conduct
the research. How much resources and time
required for the research.
• A written statement of the research design that
includes a statement explaining the purpose of
the study
• Detailed outline of the procedures associated with
a particular methodology 273
 What is Research Proposal ?
• A proposal is also known as a work plan, statement
of purpose or draft plan.
• A research proposal explains the logic behind the
proposed study, rather simply describe or
summarize the study.
• A written proposal is a blue print, or a plan for the
research investigation.
• Researcher clearly explain what he/she plans to do.
• It should not explain what the researcher know
rather what is needed.
274
Types of proposal

Proposal

Internal External Academic

Unsolicit
Solicited
ed

275
 Types of Research Proposals

1) Internal proposal
Internal proposals are prepared by the staff members of
an organization. Business firms are often concerned with
how to understand and explain a particular business
problem, the causes leading to such problem, or the
solution to an aspect of this problem. Hence, internal
proposal have a problem-solving orientation.
 Contd…
– Internal proposals are short and snappy; a one to
three-page memo from the researcher to
management outlining the problem statement,
study objectives, research design, and schedule is
enough to start an exploratory study.
– In the small scale proposal, the literature review is
not stressed and can be stated briefly in the
research design.

277
 Types of Research Proposals contd.

2)External proposal
The external proposals are prepared by external
consultants. The external proposals can further be
divided into : solicited and unsolicited proposals.
a)A solicited proposal is developed in response to a
request for proposals (RFP), and is likely to compete
against several others for the contract or grant.
b)An unsolicited proposal represents a suggestion by a
contract researcher for a research that might be done.
Such proposals do not compete against others.
3)Academic research proposals
They are prepared for academic degrees such as
bachelor’s , master’s, M. Phil and PhD. The
contents and emphasize in proposals for
research for each of these degrees are different.

279
 Criteria for selection of Topic
• Interest
• Relevance
• Avoidance of duplication
• Feasibility
• Acceptability
• Applicability
• Cost Effectiveness
• Ethical Considerations
280
 Component of Research
Proposal

It may be referred also as a content of Research

Proposal

281
 Content of Research Proposal
Preliminary Section

Title page
Acknowledgements
Table of Contents
List of Tables and Figures

282
 Main Body of the proposal

Chapter 1 - Introduction
Background
Statement of the Problem
Purpose of the Study
Significance of the Study
Research Questions or Hypotheses
Operational Definitions and
Assumptions
283
Chapter 2- Literature Review and Theoretical Framework
Literature Review
Theoretical Framework

284
Chapter 3- Methodology

Research Plan and Design

Description of the Sample
Data Collection Procedure and time
frame
Analysis Plan
285
Supplementary Section
References (Use APA format for citation and
referencing )
Appendix

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 Content of Research Proposal
• Data collection technique /Procedure
• Data analysis and interpretation
• Budget : If research project is sponsored and
budget is required.
• Timeline : Time frame that shows the research
period and time required by each activities.
Gantt's Chart is better to use to describe the
timeline.

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 Budget of Research..
SN Activities Amount
1 Remuneration :
Principal Researchers
1 Person X 5 days @ Rs. 4000 20,000
Research Assistants
3 persons X 10 days @ Rs. 1000 30,000
2 Logistics and Transportation 25,000
3 Collection of Materials & Literature 5,000
4 Data Collection field Expenses 15,000
15 days @ Rs.1000
5 Report Writing & Presentation 10,000
6 Publishing 8 nos. @ Rs. 1000 8,000
TOTAL 113,000

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 Gantt's Chart / Timeline of Research Project
Activities Week
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Proposal Approval
Research design
Literature Review
Data Collection
Data Management
Data Analysis
Data Presentation
Report Writing
Submission of the Report

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Research Report Writing

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 Concept
• The last step in the research process is writing report. A research
report is a detailed description of what has been done and how it has
been done with respect to a particular area or topic or research.
• A research report is a written document or oral presentation based
on a written document that communicates the purpose, scope,
objective(s), hypotheses, methodology, findings, limitations and
finally, recommendations of a research project to others. It is more
than a summary of findings; rather it is a record of the research
process.
• A report is simply a statement or description of things that have
already occurred.
Purpose of Research Report:
• The researcher has to convince the client and others who may read
the report that the research findings can be acted on ‘for their own
benefit.’
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 Types of reports
• Technical Report: It is suitable for a target audience of researchers,
research managers or other people familiar with and interested in
the technicalities such as research design, sampling methods,
statistical details etc.
• Popular Report: It is suitable for a more general audience,
interested mainly in the research findings as it is non-technical in
nature. The writing style is designed to facilitate easy and rapid
reading and understanding of the research findings and
recommendations.
• Descriptive Report : The report which gathered information and
facts or opinion and present the facts in an organized way may be
of real value in properly understanding the situation.

• Other types of reports :

i) Formal-Informal ii) Written – Oral iii) Internal-External iv) Short – Long
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v) Informational- Analytical
 Process of Report Writing

Assimilation Finished
Combination
Product

Information
Sources Analysis Report
Literature Interpretation
Review, Writing
Field
Surveys
Data
Banks /
Reports
Observation

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 Conventions of academic writing

Writing research report is an art. There are

certain rules to be followed to make research
report more attractive.

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 Conventions of academic writing
1. Clear writing : Report should be written in simple
sentences, not long paragraphs. It should be easily
understandable.
2. Objective of the study : Research should have
specific objective. It should be clearly mention in the
research report.
3. Terminology, Grammar and Spelling:
Correctness of grammar and spelling is necessary.
Other grammar rules should be followed strictly.
4. Selective : Everything cannot be included in research
report. Only suitable and selective words and matters
should be used.
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 Conventions of academic writing
5. Do not deviate from its Objective : The main purpose
of the research investigation is to answer the
questions that derive from the statement of
objectives.
6. Conclusion: Conclusion means inferences drawn from
the findings. Drawing conclusion is process of
theorization. Report without conclusion makes the
report meaningless.
7. Direct and Positive sentences: Avoid indirect
sentence, long and unnecessary words and phrases
and use of well structured sentence and concise
words.
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 Conventions of academic writing
8. Presentation : Use of charts, tables, graphs and labeled
adequately. Report should be in logical sequence and
clear.
9. Use of pronoun : Report should be written in third
person. The word like "The researcher", "The writer" or
"The investigator" also can be used but avoid I, you, we.
10. Use gender neutral language: Where it requires to
mention particular gender he or she can be used,
otherwise common language is better to use. Report
should not be gender biased.

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 Conventions of academic writing
11. Avoid sensational word: Newspapers and reports are
different things. Calm and gentle words to be used in report.
Emotional and sensational words should not use in report.
"Profit of the ABC Co. is increasing immensely…." The
sentence is more emotional. Instead of that we can say "…the
average growth rate of sales for last 3 years is about 36%".
12. Opinion : Data and facts are more powerful than opinion
but sometimes due to the lack of data we can use opinion.
Opinion has power to substantiate the explanations.
13. Use of notes and footnotes : The material which is not so
important to put in the main part of the text but should
include somewhere of the report to be keep as a
footnote(Harvard) or in appendix(APA).
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 Conventions of academic writing
14. Non English Terms and Expression : Sometimes local
language to be used like Dashain, Nepal Bandh etc. There is
practices to write such words in italic form.
15. Abbreviations: Use of abbreviations is common. When the
abbreviation is used for the first time, then the full form of the
term should be given first followed by abbreviation in the
brackets afterwards. After that point only abbreviation can be
used.
16. Consistency in language and Style : Some words have
different spelling in British and American writing like Color /
colour, organize/ organise etc. Only one spelling format should
be used in the whole report. Similarly, everything like font,
space, italic, bold, underline, heading (formatting matters)
should be written in consistent manner.
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 Conventions of academic writing

17. Confidentiality and anonymity : Without permission of the

respondents or on whom research is conducted, name should
keep confidential. But report can be prepared with fictional
name.
18. Appendices and Reference list : Include in an appendix any
supporting evidence, such as tables, which is not possible to
incorporate in the main body of the report. If original
questionnaires or tests have been used they may be included
in the appendices.
The reference list should give information about all sources
consulted in writing the report. It is expected to arrange the
reference list in alphabetical order according to author.

300
 Conventions of academic writing
Others conventions of academic writing: consistent, clear,
meaningful, organized, proper choice of words, smooth and easy
flow of materials.

301
 Typing the Research Report

Paper Pagination Outlook

Chapter Proof reading Table / Graph

Margin Binding

Spacing Coloring

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Components and layout of various types of
reports
No universally accepted standard format or style for
research writing. Different researchers may prepare
their reports differently. The personality, background,
expertise, and responsibility of the researcher and
those of the decision maker for whom the report is
written interact to give each report a unique character.
However, research reports whether short or long have a
set of identifiable components. Heading and sub
headings are used to divide different sections
incorporated in the report. Depending on the nature of
the report sections may drop or add.
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 Preliminary or prefatory part

Preliminary Section

Title page
Acknowledgements
Certificate of Authorship
Table of Contents
List of Tables and Figures
Executive Summary

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 The main body or the text
Details of main body

Chapter I : Introduction

Background
Statement of the Problem
Purpose of the Study
Significance of the Study
Research Questions or Hypotheses
Operational Definitions and Assumptions
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Chapter II : Review of Literature

Introduction
Conceptual Review
Review of Theories in which Your Thesis/GRP/Research is Based
(apply both inductive and deductive logics)
Present arguments of different authors in summary tables
Theoretical framework
[Analyze published studies relevant to the issue under
study.
• Synthesize to avoid simply listing studies and findings.
• Cite studies with author(s) and date.
• Avoid plagiarism by constructing a comprehensive
outline.]
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Chapter III: Research Methodology

Research Design
Population and Sample
Data Gathering Procedures
Statistical Tools
Data Management and Analysis techniques
Limitations

307
Chapter IV: Results and Discussion

Presentation of Results
Descriptive Analysis
Type of Statistical Test(s) Performed
Inferential Analysis and Discussion

308
Chapter V: Summary and Conclusions

Summary
Conclusions (make the discussions on your
findings and try to associate with previous
findings)
Recommendations

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 The end section / references and bibliography
( Supplementary section)

• Appendixes / Annexes
• Bibliography / References

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 Essentials of good research report
1. Relevance : The entire writing should of report should
be focused and relevant to the topic. Any deviation
certainly undermines the importance of the research
report.
2. Effectiveness: A good research report always
possesses that spark or that extra bit of information
that differentiates it from others.
3. Simplicity: It is better to stay simple and avoid flowery
materials.
4. Editing: This is to ensure that the report is good at the
end of the whole research process.
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 Essentials of good research report …
5. Articulation : This a characteristic that has to be
cultivated with a lot of skill. Researcher should put
forth his/her arguments precisely.
6. Reliability: Make sure the information is genuine.
7. Clarity: Only clarity of thought and purpose can bring
about clarity in writing. So, write outlines to organize
your thoughts well.
8. Helpfulness: The research report needs to be a piece of
writing that is referred to by future learners. Therefore,
resourcefulness is and important characteristic of a
research report.
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 Procedure for Writing Report
• Preparation of outline
• Time planning
• Management of data
• Start of writing report
• Prepare the first draft
• Put the report for some time
• Review and rewrite