Chapter Six:

Sources and Method of

Data Collection

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 Introduction

• Collection of data refers to a

purposive gathering of information
relevant to the subject matter of the
study from the units under
investigation.

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 Sources of data

• There are two types of data to be used

in research endeavors.
• These are:
Secondary data
Primary data

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 Secondary Sources of Data
• Secondary data means data that are already
available i.e., they refer to the data which
have already been collected and analyzed by
some one else.
• Secondary data are collected by others and
used by others.
• Any data that has been collected earlier for
some other purpose are secondary data in
the hands of an individual who is using
them.

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 Collection of Secondary Data

• Secondary data may either be

published or unpublished data.
• Usually published data are available
in:
Various publications of the central, state, or
local government
Various publications of international bodies
or their subsidiaries or foreign governments
Technical or trade journals

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 Collection of Secondary Data
Books, magazines and news papers
Reports and publications of various
organizations
Reports of research scholars in
different fields
Public records and statistics
 Historical documents and other
sources of published information.

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 Advantages of Secondary Data

1. Economical
2. Saves Time
3. Improves an understanding of
the problem
4. Used as a basis for comparison
with the primary data that have
been collected.
5. Familiarity with secondary data
indicates gaps in knowledge.
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 Limitations of Secondary Data

1.The unit in which secondary data are

expressed may not be the same as is
required in the proposed study.
2.Class boundaries may be different from
those desired.
3.One does not always know how accurate
the secondary data are.
4.A severe limitation in the use of secondary
data is that they may be somewhat out of
date.
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 Evaluating Secondary Data

1. Availability of Secondary Data

• The first and foremost requirement is that
secondary data must be available for use.
• At times, one may find that secondary
data are just not available on a problem at
hand.
• In such cases, there is no alternative but to
take resources to the collection of primary
data.

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 2. Relevance/suitability of the data
• Relevance means that the data
available must fit the requirements of
the problem.
• This would cover several aspects
– Unit of measurement should be the same
as that in the problem at hand.
– The concepts used should be the same as
are envisaged in the problem.
– The data should not be obsolete.

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 3.Reliability of the data

• The reliability can be tested by finding out

such things about the said data:
– Who collected the data
– What were the sources of the data
– Were they collected by using proper
method
– At what time were they collected
– Was there any bias of the complier
– What level of accuracy was desired? Was
it achieved?
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 4. Accuracy
• The other requirement is that the data
should be accurate.
accurate
• In this connection the researcher should
consult the original source.
• This would not only enable one to get more
comprehensive information but would also
indicate the context in which data have
been collected, the procedure followed and
the extent of care exercised in their
collection.

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 5. Sufficiency
• The data should be sufficient.
sufficient
• If the data are inadequate, then
compliance with the preceding
requirements will be vain.

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 Primary Data

• Primary data are original observations

collected by the researcher or his agents
for the first time.
time

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 Advantages of Primary Data

1.Greater details
2.More accurate
3. As it involves definitions of terms and
units used, it enhances the
investigators’ understanding of the
meaning of units in which data are
recorded.
4. It indicates schedule, the procedure
used in selecting the sample and size
of the sample.
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 Methods of Primary Data Collection

• There are several methods of collecting

primary data
• Important ones are:
1. Questionnaires
2. Schedules
3. Interview method
4. Observation method
5. Others

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Methods of Primary Data Collection

• Surveys can be divided into two broad

categories: the questionnaire and the
interview.
• Questionnaires are usually paper-and-
pencil instruments that the respondent
completes.
• Interviews are completed by the
interviewer based on the respondent
says.

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 Methods of Primary Data Collection

• Interview and the questionnaire are

the most common means of collecting
data
• In the past, the interview has been the
most popular data-collecting
instrument.
• Recently, the questionnaire has
surpassed the interview in popularity.

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 1. The Questionnaire

• The usual questions. It is a paper-and-

pencil instrument that is administered to
the respondents.
• found in questionnaires are closed-ended
questions, which are followed by response
options.
• However, there are questionnaires that
ask open-ended questions to explore the
answers of the respondents.

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 The advantages
1. Lower costs
2. Better samples
3. Standardization
4. Respondent privacy (anonymity)
5. It is free from the bias of the interviewers,
answers are in respondents own words.
6. Respondents have adequate time to give
well thought out answers.
7. Respondents, who are not easily
approachable, can also be reached
conveniently.

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 Disadvantages
1. Non-returns
2. Misinterpretation
3. Validity problems.
4. It can be used only when respondents are
educated and cooperating.
4. The control over the questionnaire may be
lost once it is sent.
5. There is inbuilt inflexibility because of the
difficulty of amending the approach once
questionnaires have been dispatched.
6. It is the slowest of all.
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 Contents of a questionnaire

• There are three portions of a questionnaire

 the cover letter,
 the instructions, and
the questions

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 The cover letter
• It should explain to the respondent the
purpose of the survey and motivate him/her
to reply truthfully and quickly.
• If possible, it should explain why the survey
is important to him/her, how s/he was
chosen to participate, and who is sponsoring
the survey (the higher the level of
sponsorship the better).
• Also the confidentiality of the results should
be strongly stressed.
• It should identify the survey as official.

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 The instructions
• It explains how to complete the
survey and where to return it.

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 The questions

• The third and final part of the

questionnaire is the set of
questions.

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 Types of Questionnaires

– Based on the situation of survey

1. Mail Questionnaires
• Sent through mail.
Advantages:
1. They are relatively inexpensive to
administer.
2. They allow the respondent to fill it out
at their own convenience.

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 Disadvantages

1. Response rates from mail surveys

are often very low.
2. Mail questionnaires are not the best
vehicles for asking for detailed
written responses.

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 2. Self-Administered Questionnaires
Are of two types:
The first type is the group administered
questionnaire.
• A sample of respondents is brought together and
asked to respond to a structured sequence of
questions.
However, the second, self-administered
surveys do not require the use of an
interviewer in administering the surveys.
Respondents read the questionnaire and
record their responses themselves.
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 3. Household Drop-off

– The other type of questionnaire is the

household drop-off survey.
– In this approach, a researcher goes to the
respondent's home or business and hands
the respondent the instrument.

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2. Types of questionnaire based on Variable of
structure or response format

• It is how the answer from the

respondent is collected.
• Accordingly, we have:
 Structured/ standardized questionnaire
 Unstructured/ non-structured
questionnaire.

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 Structured questionnaires/response formats

• are those in which there are

definite, concrete and preordained
questions.
• Includes:
a) Fill- In-The-Blank.
b) Check The Answer.
c) Circle The Answer.

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Unstructured questionnaires/ Response Formats

• Generally, it is written text.

• If the respondent writes down text as
the response, you've got an
unstructured response format.

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 Questionnaire Construction
Decisions

1. Keep the language simple.

• Analyze your audience and write on their
level.
• It is usually suggested that writing at the
sixth grade level may be appropriate.
• Avoid the use of technical terms or
jargon.

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 2. Keep the questions short

• Long questions tend to become ambiguous

and confusing.
• A respondent, in trying to comprehend a
long question, may leave out a clause and
thus change the meaning of the question.

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 3. Keep the number of questions to a
minimum
• There is no commonly agreed on maximum
number of questions that should be asked, but
research suggests higher return rates correlate
highly with shorter surveys.
• Ask only questions that will contribute to your
survey. Apply the “So what?” and “Who cares?”
tests to each question.
• “Nice-to-know” questions only add to the size of
the questionnaire.
• Do not leave out, however, questions that
would yield necessary data simply because it
will shorten your survey. If the information is
necessary, ask the question.

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 4. Limit each question to one idea
or concept
• A question consisting of more than one idea
may confuse the respondent and lead to a
meaningless answer.
• Consider this question: “Are you in favor
of raising pay and lowering benefits?”
• What would a “Yes (or No)” answer mean?

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 5. Do not ask leading questions
• Leading questions are worded in a manner
that suggests an answer.
• Some respondents may give the answer you
are looking for whether or not they think it is
right.
• Such questions can alienate the respondent
and may open your questionnaire to criticism.
• A properly worded question gives no clue as
to which answer you may believe to be the
correct one.

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 6. Use subjective terms such as good,
fair, and bad sparingly/economically, if
at all

• These terms mean different things to

different people.
• One person's “fair” may be another
person's “bad.”
• How much is “often” and how little is
“seldom?”

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 7. Allow for all possible answers

• Respondents who cannot find their answer

among your list will be forced to give an
invalid reply or, possibly, become frustrated
and refuse to complete the survey.
• Wording the question to reduce the number
of possible answers is the first step.

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8. Avoid emotional or morally charged
questions and too direct questions

• There are times when asking a question

too directly may be too threatening or
disturbing for respondents.
• The respondent may feel your survey is
getting a bit too personal!

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 9. Formulate your questions and
answers to obtain exact information and
to minimize confusion
• The survey author has to always be on the
lookout for questions that could be
misunderstood or confusing. Some terms are
just too vague to be useful.
• For instance, if you ask a question about the
"mass media," what do you mean? The
newspapers? Radio? Television? “How old are
you?” mean on your last or your nearest
birthday? Does “What is your (military) grade?”
mean permanent or temporary grade? As of
what date?
• By including instructions like “Answer all
questions as of (a certain date)”, you can
alleviate many such conflicts.
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10. Include a few questions that can
serve as checks on the accuracy and
consistency of the answers as a whole
• Have some questions that are worded
differently, but are soliciting the same
information, in different parts of the
questionnaire.
• These questions should be designed to
identify the respondents who are just
marking answers randomly or who are trying
to game the survey (giving answers they
think you want to hear).

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11. Understand the “should-would”
question
• Usually respondents answer “should”
questions from a social or moral point of
view while answering “would” questions in
terms of personal preference.

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12. Organize the pattern of the questions
appropriately:

• Place demographic questions at the

beginning of the questionnaire.
• Have your opening questions arouse
interest.
• Ask easier questions first.

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 Cont’d…
• Have general questions precede specific
ones.
• Group similar questions together.
• If you must use personal or emotional
questions, place them at the end of the
questionnaire.
• Thank the respondent at the beginning and
at end
• Assure the respondent that you will send a
copy of the final results.
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 Cont’d…
13. Pretest (pilot test) the questionnaire.
14. Have your questionnaire neatly
produced on quality paper.
15. Be realistic in assuming about the
respondents.
16. Finally, make your survey
interesting!

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 2. Schedules

• Schedules are questionnaires filled by

the enumerators.

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 Advantages
1. It can be adopted even in those cases
where informants are illiterates.
2. It eliminates to a great extent the problem
of non-response
3. The enumerator can explain the
significance of the inquiry and the
questions in the questionnaire personally
to the informants and thus ensuring
collection of accurate and reliable
information.

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 Limitations

1. The enumerator might be biased one and may

not enter the answers given by the respondents
truthfully.
2. Where there are many enumerators, they may
interpret various terms in the questionnaire
according to their own understanding of the
terms.
3. The bias might be arising due to the state of
mind of the informant or the environment in
which he is placed.
4. It is some what costly and time consuming.
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Difference between questionnaires and
Schedules
a) The questionnaire can be sent through
mail whereas the schedule is filled out by
the research worker or the enumerator.
b) Questionnaire is relatively economical.
c) Non-response is usually high in case of
questionnaire.
d) In case of questionnaire, it is not always
clear as to who replies, but in case of
schedule the identity of the respondent is
known.

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 Difference between questionnaires and
Schedules
e) The questionnaire method is likely to be slow
than schedule.
f) Personal contact is generally not possible in
case of the questionnaire method, but in case
of schedules direct personal contact is
established with respondents.
g) Questionnaire method is only used when
respondents are literate and cooperative, but in
case of schedules the information can be
gathered even when the respondents happen
to be illiterate.
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 Difference between questionnaires and
Schedules
h) Wider and more representative sample coverage is
possible in case of questionnaire method, whereas
in schedule this may not be easy.
i) Risk of collecting incomplete and wrong
information is relatively high in case of
questionnaire method than in case of schedule.
j) The success of questionnaire method lies more on
the quality of the questionnaire itself, but in case of
schedules much depends upon the honesty and
competence of enumerators.
k) Along with schedules observation method can be
used but such thing is not possible in case of
questionnaire method
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 3. Interviews
• Interviews are among the most
challenging and rewarding forms of
data collection technique.

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 Types of Interviews
A. Face-to Face Interviews /Personal
Interviews
• In the personal interview, the interviewer
works directly with the respondent.

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 Advantages of Personal Interviews
1. It has the highest response rates.
2. Quick response can be attained.
3. Personal contacts are involved
4. Follow up questions can be asked.
5. It permits the longest questionnaire.
6. Higher flexibility.
7. Interviewers can observe the surroundings and can
use nonverbal communication and visual aids.
8. The interviewer can control who answers the
questions.
9. All types of questions can be asked including complex
questions using illustrations and extensive probes.

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 Disadvantages of Personal Interviews

1. Interviews can be very time consuming

2. Interviews are resource intensive or very
expensive as training, travel, supervision
cost are added.
3. Interviewer bias is greatest.
4. The interviewer’s wording, tone of voice,
appearance may matter.

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 B. Telephone interview

• It is a popular survey method.

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 Advantages
1. Telephone interviews enable to gather
information rapidly.
2. They allow some contact between the
interviewer and the respondent.
3. They allow the interviewer to ask follow-up
questions.
4. They are cheaper than the personal interview.
5. No field staff is required.
6. Representative and wider distribution of
sample is possible.

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 Disadvantages
1. Many people don't have publicly-listed
telephone numbers. Some don't have
telephones.
2. People often don't like the intrusion of a call
to their homes.
3. Telephone interviews have to be relatively
short or people will feel imposed upon.
4. Noise may interrupt the process.
5. Possibility of the bias of the interviewer is
relatively more.
6. It is not suitable for intensive surveys where
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 4. Observation Method

• Observation is one of the methods of

collecting data.
• It is the most commonly used
method especially in studies related
to behavioral sciences.

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 Advantages
1. The direct observational technique enables the
investigator to record the behavior as it occurs.
2. It can be used regardless of whether the
respondent is willing to report or not.
3. It can be used even when it pertains to those who
are unable to respond, such as an infants and
animals.
4. It is an expensive method
5. The information provided by this method is very
limited.
6. Sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere with
the observational task.
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 Limitations
1. Only the current behavior of a person
or group of persons can be observed.
2. It doesn’t help us in gauging a
person’s attitude or opinion or
knowledge on a certain subject.
3. The observational method is very slow

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Selecting the Data collection Method

• Selecting the type of survey you are

going to use is one of the most critical
decisions in many social research
contexts.
• There are some points that may be
considered in selecting the appropriate
method of data collection.

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 Population/sample Issues

• The first set of considerations has to do

with the population and its accessibility.
 Can the population be enumerated/listed?
 Is the population literate?
 Are there language issues?
 Will the population cooperate?
 What are the geographic restrictions?
 Are response rates likely to be a problem?

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 Question Issues

• Sometimes the nature of what you want to

ask respondents will determine the type of
survey you select.
 What types of questions can be asked?
 How complex will the questions be?
 Will lengthy questions be asked?

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 Content Issues

• The content of your study can also

pose challenges for the different
survey types you might utilize.
 Will respondent need to consult
records?

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 Bias Issues

• People come to the research

endeavor with their own sets of
biases and prejudices.
 Can social desirability be avoided?
 Can interviewer distortion and
subversion be controlled?
 Can false respondents be avoided?

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 Administrative Issues

• Last, but certainly not least, you

have to consider the feasibility of the
survey method for your study.
 costs
 facilities
 time
 personnel

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Thank You!

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