ANALOG COMMUNICATIONS

Introduction
Communication: It is the process of conveying or
transferring information from one point to
another. (Or)
It is the process of establishing connection or link
between two points for information exchange.
Elements of Communication System:
Information source:
The message or information to be communicated
originates in information source.
Message can be words, group of words, code, data,
symbols, signals etc.
Transmitter :
The objective of the transmitter block is to collect
the incoming message signal and modify it in a
suitable fashion (if needed), such that, it can be
transmitted via the chosen channel to the receiving
point.
Channel :
Channel is the physical medium which connects
the transmitter with that of the receiver.
The physical medium includes copper wire,
coaxial cable, fibre optic cable, wave guide and
free space or atmosphere.
Receiver:
The receiver block receives the incoming
modified version of the message signal from the
channel and processes it to recreate the original
(non- electrical) form of the message signal.
 Signal, Message,
Signal:
Information
It is a physical quantity which varies with respect
to time or space or independent or dependent
variable.
(Or)
It is electrical waveform which carries information.
Ex: 1 = Acos(wt+ϕ)
Where, A= Amplitude or peak amplitude(Volts)
w = Frequency ( rad/sec)
ϕ = Phase (rad)
 Types of
• Analog or Continuous
Signals
Signal
• Digital Signal
Analog or Continuous Signal: If the amplitude of
signal continuously varies with respect to time or
if the signal contains infinite number of
amplitudes, it is called Analog or continuous
signal.
 Types of
Digital Signal: Signals
If the signal contains only two discrete amplitudes,
then it is called digital signal.

Message: It is sequence of symbols.

Ex: Happy New Year 2020.
Information: The content in the message is called
information. It is inversely proportional to
probability of occurrence of the symbol.

• Information is measured in bits, decits, nats.

 Modulation
It is the process of varying the characteristics of
high frequency carrier in accordance with
instantaneous values of modulating or message
or baseband signal.
(Or)
It is a frequency translation technique which
converts baseband or low frequency signal to
bandpass or high frequency signal.

Modulation is used in the transmitter.

 Types of
Modulation
 Types of
Modulation
• Amplitude Modulation: Amplitude of the carrier
is varied in accordance with the instantaneous
values of modulating signal.

• Frequency Modulation: Frequency of the carrier

is varied in accordance with the instantaneous
values of modulating signal.

• Phase Modulation: Phase of the carrier is varied

in accordance with the instantaneous values of
modulating signal.
 Benefits or Need of Modulation
• To reduce the length or height of antenna

• For multiplexing

• To reduce noise effect

• To avoid equipment limitation or to reduce the

size of the equipment.
 Amplitude Modulation
The amplitude of the carrier signal varies in
accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of
the modulating signal.
 Amplitude Modulation

The carrier signal is given by, C(t) = Ac Cosw ct

Where, Ac= Maximum amplitude of the carrier
signal.
W= 2πfc= Frequency of the carrier signal.

Modulating signal is given by, m(t) = Am Cosw mt

Where, Am = Amplitude of the baseband signal.
 Amplitude Modulation
The standard equation for amplitude modulated signal is expressed as,
S(t)= Ac Cos2πfct[1+ma(Cos2πfmt)]
Where, ma = Am/Ac = Modulation Index
Time Domain representation of AM:
S(t)=AcCos2πfct+ ma Ac/2Cos2π[fc+fm]t+ma Ac/2Cos2π[fc-fm]t
I term: Carrier signal with amplitude Ac and frequency fc.
II. term: Amplitude= ma Ac/2, frequency= fc+fm , Upper sideband
frequency
III. term: Amplitude= ma Ac/2, frequency= fc-fm , Lower sideband
frequency
 Amplitude Modulation
Frequency Domain representation of AM:
The time domain representation of AM wave is given by,
S(t)= Ac Cos2πfct[1+ma(Cos2πfmt)]
Taking Fourier transform on both sides,
S(f) = Ac/2[δ(f-fc)+ δ(f+fc)] + Acma/2[M(f-fc)+ M(f+fc)]
The message signal and its fourier transform is shown below
 Modulation Index
Modulation index or depth of modulation is given by,
ma = [Amplitude of modulating signal/ Amplitude of carrier]= Am/Ac

Percentage of modulation index is,

%ma = [Am/Ac ]X100

Types of AM with respect to modulation index:

• Under Modulation (ma <1)
• Critical Modulation (ma =1)
• Over Modulation (ma >1)
 Generation of AM
Wave
Square Law modulator:
This circuit consists of,
•A non-linear device
•Band pass filter
•Carrier source and modulating signal
 Generation of AM
The modulating signal Wave
and carrier are connected in
series with each other and their sum V1(t) is
applied at the input of non-linear device such as
diode or transistor.
V1(t) = x(t) + Ac cosWct --- (1)
The input-output relation of non-linear device is,
V2(t)= aV1(t) + b V12(t) --- (2)
Using (1) in (2),
V2(t) = a x(t) + a Ac Cos (2πfct)+bx2(t) + 2bx(t) Ac Cos (2πfct)+b Ac2 Cos2
(2πfct)---(3)
Out of these 5 terms, 1,3,5 terms are unuseful terms
are eliminated by BPF.
 Generation of AM
Output of BPF is given Wave
by,
V0(t) = a Ac Cos (2πfct)+ 2bx(t) Ac Cos (2πfct)---
(4)
V (t)=aAc[1+(2b/a)x(t)]cos(2πfct)
0

Switching Modulator:
 Generation of AM
Wave
V1(t)=x(t)+c(t)=x(t)+Eccos(2πfct)
Assume amplitude of msg < amplitude of carrier
The diode will be forward biased when c(t)>0 and reverse
biased when c(t)<0.
Hence , v2(t) = v1(t) for c(t) > 0
v2(t) = 0 for c(t) < 0

Where gp(t) is a periodic pulse train

Let us express gp(t) with the help of Fourier series as
Substituting gp(t) in equation V2(t)

In this expression, 1st and 4th terms are

unwanted terms whereas the 2nd and 3rd terms
together represents the AM wave .

This is the required expression for the AM

wave with m=[4/πEc]
Detection of AM Wave
Demodulation or detection is the process of
recovering the original message signal from the
received modulated signal.

Types of AM
Detectors:
1.Square Law detector
2.Envelope detector
3.Rectifier detector
 Detection of AM
Wave
Square Law detector:

The amplitude modulated wave is given as input to the

square law device.
V2(t)= aV1(t) + b V12(t)---(1)
When this is passed through square law device,
V2(t) =aAcCoswct + aAcmx(t)Coswct+ bAc 2Cos2wct+
2bAc2mx(t)Cos2wct+ bAc2m2x2(t)Cos2wct---(2)
 Detection of AM
In order to extract the Wave
original message signal, V2(t)
is passed through a low pass filter .
The output of LPF is,
V0(t) = mbAc2x(t) ---(3)
Envelope Detector:
 Detection of AM
• The standard AM wave
Wave
is applied at the input of
detector .
• Inevery positive half cycle of input,
diode is forward biased which charges
capacitor ‘C’.
• When capacitor charges to peak value
ofinput voltage, diode stops conducting.
• The capacitor discharges through ‘R’
between positive peaks.
• This process continuous and capacitor
charges and discharges repeatedly.
 Detection of AM
Wave

Rectifier
detector:
 Detection of AM
• In rectifier detector,Wave
diode acts as rectifier which
allows only positive half of the modulated signal
to the filter.

• The low pass filter removes all the high frequency

components giving envelope at its output.

• This envelope will have some dc value which can

be removed by passing through capacitor ‘C’.

• The output of rectifier detector is

the envelope with zero dc value.
 Double Sideband-Suppressed Carrier(DSB-
The equation of AM wave inSC)
simple form is given by,

From this equation, it is obvious that the carrier component in AM wave remains
constant in amplitude and frequency . This means that the carrier of amplitude
modulated wave does not convey any information .

The resulting signal obtained by suppressing the carrier from the

modulated wave is called Double sideband suppressed carrier (DSB-
SC) system .
 DSB-SC Modulation
A DSB-SC signal is obtained by multiplying
the
modulating signal x(t) with carrier signal c(t).
So, we need a product modulator for the generation of
DSB-SC wave.
 DSB-SC Modulation
1. Balanced Modulator:
It consists of two amplitude modulators arranged
in balanced configuration to suppress the carrier
completely.
Operation:
DSB-SC Modulation
•Carrier c(t) is applied to both the modulators.
•Message signal x(t) is applied directly to modulator 1 and with a
phase shift of 1800 to modulator 2.
Output of modulator 1 is, S1(t) = Ac[1+ mx(t)] cos 2πfct ---(1)
Output of modulator 2 is, S2(t) = Ac[1- mx(t)] cos 2πfct ---(2)
These two outputs are applied to subtractor, whose output is,
S(t)=S1(t)-S2(t)= Ac[1+mx(t)] cos 2πfct- Ac[1-mx(t)] cos 2πfct
=2mx(t) Ac cos 2πfct =2m Amcos2πfmt Accos2πfct
=1/2Am Ac[cos2π(fc+fm)t + cos2π(fc-fm)t]
The R.H.S. of this expression consists of product of x(t) and c(t).
Hence, it represents a DSB-SC signal .
Ring Modulator
It operates in two modes
•Mode1: Without modulating signal x(t)
•Mode 2: With modulating signal x(t)
Mode1: x(t)=0, c(t) is present
During positive half cycle:
•Diodes D1, D2 forward biased, D3,D4 Reverse biased
•Output of ring modulator will be zero as the currents flowing
through primary of T2 are equal and opposite.
During negative half cycle:
Diodes D1, D2 reverse biased, D3,D4 forward biased
Output of ring modulator will be zero.

Thus the carrier is suppressed in both half cycles.

• Mode 2 : Operation in Presence of Modulating Signal
When RF carrier and modulating signal both are applied .
(i) Operation in the positive half-cycle of Modulating Signal
• During positive half cycle of the carrier, D1 and D2 will be ON and
secondary of T1 is directly applied to primary of T2.
• Output will be positive.
• During negative half cycle of carrier, D3 and D4 will be On and
secondary of T1 is applied in a reverse manner across primary of
T2.
• Output will be negative
(ii)Operation in the negative half cycle of the modulating signal
• Operation is same
• D3, D4 produce positive output
• D1, D2 produce negative output
 Time Domain representation of DSB-
Message signal is given SC
by,
x(t) =Am cos(2πfmt) ---(1) Carrier signal is given
by,
C(t) = Ac cos(2πfct) ---(2) DSB-SC modulated
signal is given by,
S(t) = x(t) c(t) ---(3)
S(t) = 1/2AmAc[cos2π(fc+fm)t + cos2π(fc-fm)t]--
(4)
 Frequency Domain representation of DSB-
SC of DSB-SC is obtained
The frequency spectrum
by taking Fourier transform of s(t)
S(f) = F{[1/2AmAc[cos2π(fc+fm)t + cos2π(fc-fm)t]}

S(f) =
This is the spectrum of DSB-SC wave.
 Demodulation of DSB-SC
Coherent Detection:
The modulating signal x(t) is recovered from DSB-SC wave s(t) by
multiplying it with a locally generated carrier and then passing
through a LPF.
 Single Sideband-Suppressed Carrier(SSB-
The modulation process inSC)
which only one side band is
transmitted and with carrier suppression is called Single
sideband suppressed carrier (SSB- SC).
Modulating Signal m(t)= Am Cos (2πfmt) and Carrier Signal
c(t) = Ac Cos (2πfct)
SSB-SC signal can be generated by passing DSB-SC signal
through BPF. And DSB-SC signal is generated by
multiplying m(t) & c(t).
 Generation of SSB-SC
1. Frequency Discrimination Method:

This method of generating DSB-SC Signal requires

product modulator and BPF as shown in figure.
Here Product Modulator generates DSB-SC Signal
which contains two side bands i.e USB & LSB.
By passing DSB-SC Signal through BPF either of
sidebands are removed for generating SSB-SC
Signal.
2.Phase Shift or Phase Discrimination Method:
This system is used for the suppression of upper sideband.
This system uses two Product modulators M1 and M2 and two 90o phase
shifting networks.

Output of top product modulator is

AcCos2πfct*AmCos2πfmt
=AmAc/2[cos(2π(fc+fm)t)+cos(2π(fc-fm)t]

Output of lower product modulator is

AcSin2πfct*AmSin2πfmt
=AmAc/2[cos(2π(fc-fm)t)-cos(2π(fc+fm)t]

On giving these two to adder AmAcCos[2π(fc-fm)t] will be the

output……LSB
 Vestigial Sideband
• VSB-SC is used Transmission
to transmit Video Signal which is
large BW signal containing very low and very high
frequency components.
• Very low Frequencies raise sidebands near to carrier
frequency.
• It is not possible to suppress one complete sideband.
• Very low frequencies contain most of useful
information, any effect to complete suppress the
one sideband would result phase distortion at these
frequencies.
• Therefore compromise has been made to
suppress the part of sideband. Hence VSB-SC Signal
contain one full sideband & part of other side band.
 VSB Modulation
Modulation:
Modulating signal x(t) and carrier signal c(t) are applied
as inputs to the product modulator.
S(t) = x(t)c(t)
This is the DSB-SC wave. It is applied to a side band filter which passes the
wanted sideband completely and vestige of unwanted sideband.
 VSB Demodulation
Demodulation:
The demodulation of VSB signal can be achieved using a coherent
detector by multiplying s(t) with a locally generated carrier.
V(t) = s(t)AcCos2πfct
This signal is then passed through a LPF which passes low frequency
message signal and rejects carrier.
 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation(QAM)
QAM is a method of combining two AM signals into
a single channel. It is used to transmit color
information in TV signal transmission.
 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation(QAM)
The output of Transmitter S (t) = m1 (t) Cos (2πfct) + m2 (t) Sin (2πfct)
The output of multiplier S1(t) = [m1 (t) Cos (2πfct )+ m2 (t) Sin (2πfct)] x
Cos (2πfct)
= m1(t) Cos2(2πfct) + m2(t) sin(2πfct) Cos(2πfct)
= m1(t)/2(1+Cos4πfct)) + m2(t)/2 Sin(4πfct)
=m1(t)/2 + m1(t)/2 Cos(4πfct)+ m2(t)/2 Sin(4πfct)
Second and Third terms are high frequency signals are eliminated by
LPF. So that output of LPF is m1(t)/2
The output of multiplier S2(t) = [m1 (t) Cos (2πfct + m2 (t) Sin (2πfct)] x
Sin (2πfct)
=m2(t)/2Sin(4πfct)+m2(t)/2-m2(t)/2Cos(4πfct) First and Third terms are
high frequency signals are eliminated by LPF.
So that output of LPF is m2(t)/2 .
 Super Heterodyne AM
Receiver
Heterodyne means mixing two frequencies and
generating single or constant frequency and the
output of mixer will be fixed frequency.
Specification of AM Receiver:
• The frequency range of AM-MW( Medium wave)
: (540-1640) KHz
• Band width of receiver:1640 KHz – 540 KHz = 1100 KHz
• Band width of each AM station : 10 KHz
• No. of stations available: 110
• Intermediate frequency (fIF): 455 KHz
Super Heterodyne AM
Receiver
 Super Heterodyne AM
Antenna: It is passive device which converts electromagnetic signal into
electrical signal. Receiver
RF Tuned Amplifier:
•It is broad band amplifier which contain tuning circuit and amplifier.
•Tuning circuit is designed to select 110 stations and amplifier provides
amplification for 1100 KHz band width.
•RF tuned amplifier is responsible for sensitivity, selectivity, Image signal
rejection and noise reduction.
Mixer:
•It is combination of frequency mixer and Band Pass Filter (BPF).
•Frequency generates sum and difference frequency of incoming signal and
locally generated signal.
•BPF selects difference frequency at the output whose center frequency is
equal to= 455 KHz.
Local Oscillator:
•It is either Colpits or Hartley oscillator.
•It generates carrier frequency 455 KHz greater than the incoming carrier
frequency to produce constant or fixed frequency.
 Super Heterodyne AM
IF Amplifier:
Receiver
•It is narrow band, high gain and fixed frequency amplifier which provides
amplification for 10 KHz band width at center frequency of 455 KHz.
•It is cascadeCE amplifier which provides
90% of total receiver amplification.

Detector or Demodulator:
•It is frequency translator circuit which extracts modulating signal from AM
signal.
•Usually Envelope detector is used.
•Fidelity of the receiver is mainly depends on detector or demodulator.

Audio Amplifier:
•It is low frequency amplifier which provides amplification at (20- 20K) Hz.
•It contain cascade CE Voltage amplifier followed by Power amplifier.

Loud Speaker:
•It converts Electrical signal into sound or audio signal.
 ANGLE
MODULATION
Angle modulation is a process of varying angle of
carrier in accordance with the the
modulating signal. instantaneous values
of

Angle can be varied by varying frequency or

phase.

Angle modulation is of 2
types.

•Frequency Modulation
•Phase Modulation
Frequency Modulation
The process of frequency the carrier in
varying
accordance with the of values the
modulating signal.
instantaneous of

Relation between angle and frequency :

Consider carrier signal c(t)= Ac Cos (wct+φ)

= Ac Cos (2πfct +φ)
Where, fc= Carrier frequency
φ = Phase

C(t) = Ac Cos[ψ(t)], where, ψ(t)= fct+φ

i.e Frequency can be obtained by derivating angle

and angle can be obtained by integrating frequency.
Frequency Modulation

Frequency modulator converts input voltage into

frequency i.e the amplitude of modulating signal m(t)
changes to frequency at the output.

Consider carrier signal c(t) =Ac Coswct

The frequency variation at the output
is called instantaneous frequency and is
expressed as,

fi = fc + kf m(t)
Where, kf = frequency sensitivity
 Frequency Modulation
The angle of the carrier after modulation can
written as, be

Frequency modulated signal can be written as, AFM(t)

= Ac Cos [ψi(t)] = Ac Cos [fct + kf ʃm(t)dt]

Frequency Deviation in FM:

The instantaneous frequency, fi = fc + kf m(t)

= fc + Δf
Where, Δwf= kf m(t) is called frequency deviation which
may be positive or negative depending on the sign of
m(t).
 Phase Modulation
The process of varying the phase of carrier in accordance
with instantaneous values of the modulating signal.

Consider modulating signal x(t) and carrier signal c(t) =

Ac Coswct

Phase modulating signal,

APM(t) = Ac Cos[ ψi(t)] Where, ψi(t) = wct + kp1

Where, kp = Phase sensitivity factor in rad/volt

APM(t) = Ac Cos[wct + kp1]

 Phase Modulation
Frequency deviation in PM:

Conversion between Frequency and Phase

Modulation:
Modulation Index
Definition:
Modulation Index is defined as the ratio of frequency
deviation () to the modulating frequency (fm).

M.I.=Frequency Deviation / Modulating Frequency

mf =δ/fm

In FM M.I.>1

Modulation Index of FM decides − (i)Bandwidth of the FM wave.

(ii)Number of sidebands in FM wave.
Deviation Ratio

Deviation Maximum Deviation

Ratio= Maximum modulating
Frequency
= δmax
fmax

In FM broadcasting the maximum value of deviation is limited to 75

kHz. The maximum modulating frequency is also limited to 15 kHz.
Percentage M.I. of FM

The percentage modulation is defined as the ratio of the

actual frequency deviation produced by the modulating signal
to the maximum allowable frequency deviation.

% M.I = Actual deviation

Maximum allowable
deviation


 Mathematical Representation of
FM
(i) Modulating
Signal:

It may be represented as,

em = Em cos mt (1)

Here cos term taken for

simplicity
where,em = Instantaneous amplitude
m = Angular velocity
= 2fm
fm = Modulating frequency
(ii) Carrier Signal:

Carrier may be represented as,

ec = Ec sin (ct + ) -----(2)

where,
ec = Instantaneous amplitude
c = Angular velocity
= 2fc
fc = Carrier frequency Phase
 = angle
(iii) FM Wave:

Fig. Frequency Vs. Time in FM

FM is nothing but a deviation of frequency.
From Fig. 2.25, it is seen that instantaneous frequency
‘f’ of the FM
wave is given by,
f =fc (1 + K Em cos mt) (3)
where,
fc =Unmodulated carrier frequency K =
Proportionality constant
Em cos mt =Instantaneous modulating
signal
(Cosine term preferred for
simplicity otherwise we can use sine
term also)
f =f c (1 maximum
•The  (4)for this particular signal will
 K Em) deviation
 occur,
f =f when
c  K Emfc
 (5)
So that maximum deviation  will be given by,
 = K Emfc  (6) The instantaneous
amplitude of FM signal is given by,
= A sin [f(c, m)]
eFM
= A sin   (7)
where,
f(c, m)= Some function of carrier and modulating
frequencies
Let us write equation (2.26) in terms of  as,
 = c (1 + K Em cos mt)
To find ,  must be integrated with respect to time. Thus,

 =  dt
= c (1 + K Em cos mt) dt
 =c (1 + K Em cos mt) dt
=  c (t+ KEm sin mt)
m
=ct + KEmc sin mt
m

=ct + KEmfc sin mt

m
=ct +  sinmt  = K Em fc]
[...
fm

Substitute value of  in equation (7) Thus,
eFM = A sin (ct +  sinmt )---(8)
fm
eFM = A sin (ct +mf sinmt )---(9)

This is the equation of FM.

 Frequency Spectrum of FM
Frequency spectrum is a graph of amplitude versus frequency.
The frequency spectrum of FM wave tells us about number of
sideband present in the FM wave and their amplitudes.
The expression for FM wave is not simple. It is complex because it
is sine of sine function.
Only solution is to use ‘Bessels Function’.
Equation (2.32) may be expanded as,
eFM = {A J0 (mf) sin ct
+ J1 (mf) [sin (c + m) t − sin (c − m) t]
+ J1 (mf) [sin (c + 2m) t + sin (c − 2m) t]
+ J3 (mf) [sin (c + 3m) t − sin (c − 3m) t]
+ J4 (mf) [sin (c + 4m) t + sin (c − 4m) t]
+ }  (2.33)
From this equation it is seen that the FM wave consists of:
(i)Carrier (First term in equation).
(ii)Infinite number of sidebands (All terms
except first term are
sidebands).
The amplitudes of carrier and sidebands depend on ‘J’ coefficient.
c = 2fc, m = 2fm
Fig. : Ideal Frequency Spectrum of
FM
Bandwidth of FM
From frequency spectrum of FM wave shown in Fig.
2.26, we can say that the bandwidth of FM wave is
infinite.
But practically, it is calculated based on how many
sidebands have significant amplitudes.
(i)The Simple Method to calculate the bandwidth is −

BW=2fmx Number of significant sidebands --(1)

With increase in modulation index, the number of

significant sidebands increases. So that bandwidth also
increases.
(ii)The second method to calculate bandwidth is by
Carson’s rule.
Carson’s rule states that, the bandwidth of FM wave is twice
the sum of deviation and highest modulating frequency.
BW=2( +fmmax) (2)

Highest order side band = To be found from

table 2.1 after the
calculation of modulation Index m where, m = /fm

e.g. If m= 20KHZ/5KHZ

From table, for modulation index 4, highest order side band is 7th.
Therefore, the bandwidth is
B.W. = 2 fm  Highest order side band
=2  5 kHz  7
=70 kHz
Types of Frequency Modulation

FM (Frequency
Modulation)

Narrowband FM (NBFM) Wideband FM

[When modulation index is (WBFM)
small] [When modulation index is
large]
Comparison between Narrowband
and Wideband FM
Sr. Parameter NBFM WBFM
No.
1. Modulation Less than or slightly Greater than 1
index greater than 1
2. Maximum 5 kHz 75 kHz
deviation
3. Range of 20 Hz to 3 kHz 20 Hz to 15 kHz
modulating
frequency
4. Maximum Slightly greater than 1 5 to 2500
modulation
index
5. Bandwidth Small approximately Large about 15 times
same as that of AM BW = greater than that of
2fm NBFM.
BW = 2(+fmmax)
6. Applications FM mobile communication Entertainment
like police wireless, broadcasting (can be used
ambulance, short range for high quality music
ship to shore transmission)
communication etc.
 Representation of
FM can be represented by two ways:
1.Time domain. FM
2.Frequency domain.
1.FM in Time Domain
Time domain representation means continuous variation of voltage with respect
to time as shown in Fig. .

Fig. 1 FM in Time Domain

2.FM in Frequency Domain
• Frequency domain is also known as frequency spectrum.
• FM in frequency domain means graph or plot of amplitude versus frequency as
shown in Fig. 2.29.

Fig. 2: FM in Frequency Domain

Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis
• Pre and de-emphasis circuits are used only in frequency modulation.
• Pre-emphasis is used at transmitter and de-emphasis at receiver.
1. Pre-emphasis
• In FM, the noise has a greater effect on the higher modulating frequencies.
• This effect can be reduced by increasing the value of modulation index (m f), for
higher modulating frequencies.
• This can be done by increasing the deviation ‘’
and ‘’ can be increased by
increasing the amplitude of modulating signal at higher frequencies.
Definition:
The artificial boosting of higher audio modulating
frequencies in
accordance with prearranged response curve is called pre-emphasis.
• Pre-emphasis circuit is a high pass filter as shown in Fig.
 As shown in Fig. 1, AF is passed through a high-pass filter, before
applying to FM modulator.
•As modulating frequency (fm) increases, capacitive
reactance decreases and modulating voltage goes on increasing.
fm  Voltage of modulating signal applied to FM modulat
Boosting is done according to pre-arranged curve as shown
in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2: P re-emphasis
Curve
•

The time constant of pre-emphasis is at 50 s in all CCIR standards.

•In systems employing American FM and TV standards, networks having
time constant of 75 sec are used.
•The pre-emphasis is used at FM transmitter as shown in Fig.

Fig. FM Transmitter with Pre-

emphasis
De-emphasis
• De-emphasis circuit is used at FM receiver.
Definition:
The artificial boosting of higher modulating
frequencies in the
process of pre-emphasis is nullified at receiver by process called
de-emphasis.
• De-emphasis circuit is a low pass filter shown in Fig.

Fig. De-emphasis
Circuit
 Fig. De-emphasis Curve

As shown in Fig.5, de-modulated FM is applied to the de-emphasis

circuit (low pass filter) where with increase in fm, capacitive reactance Xc
decreases. So that output of de-emphasis circuit also reduces

• Fig. 5 shows the de-emphasis curve corresponding to a time

constant
50 s. A 50 s de-emphasis corresponds to a frequency response
curve that is 3 fdB down
= at1/ 2πRC given by,
frequency
= 1/ 2π x 50x 1000
= 3180 Hz
Comparison between Pre-emphasis
and De-emphasis
Parameter Pre-emphasis De-emphasis

1. Circuit used High pass filter. Low pass filter.

2. Circuit diagram

Fig. 2.36 Fig. 2.37

3. Response curve
Fig. 2.38 Fig. 2.39

4. Time constant T = RC = 50 s T = RC = 50 s

5. Definition Boosting of higher Removal of higher

frequencies frequencies

6. Used at FM transmitter FM receiver.

Comparison between AM and FM
Parameter AM FM

1. Definition Amplitude of carrier is Frequency of carrier is

varied in accordance with varied in accordance with
amplitude of modulating the amplitude of
signal keeping frequency and modulating signal keeping
phase constant. amplitude and phase
constant.
2. Constant Frequency and phase. Amplitude and phase.
parameters

3. Modulated signal

4. Modulation Index
m=Em/Ec

m = / fm

5. Number of Only two Infinite and depends on mf.

sidebands
6. Bandwidth BW = 2fm BW = 2 ( + fm (max))

7. Application MW, SW band broadcasting, Broadcasting FM, audio

video transmission in TV. transmission in TV.
 FM
GENERATION
There are two methods for generation of FM wave.

Generation of FM

Direct Method Indirect Method

1.Armstrong Method
1.Reactance Modulator
2.Varactor Diode
Reactance Method

Fig. : Transistorized Reactance

Varactor Diode
Modulator

Fig. : Varactor Diode Frequency

Modulator
 Limitations of Direct Method of FM
Generation
1. In this method, it is very difficult to get high order
stability in carrier frequency because in this method the
basic oscillator is not a stable oscillator, as it is controlled by
the modulating signal.

2.Generally in this method we get distorted FM, due

to non-linearity of the varactor diode.
FM Transmitter (Armstrong
Method)
FM Generation using IC 566

Fig. : Basic Frequency Modulator using NE566

VCO
 Advantages/ Disadvantages/Applications of
Advantages of FM
FM
1.Transmitted power remains constant.
2.FM receivers are immune to noise.
3.Good capture effect. 4.No mixing of signals.

Disadvantages of FM
The greatest disadvantages of FM are:
1.It uses too much spectrum space. 2.The bandwidth is wider.
3.The modulation index can be kept low to
minimize the
bandwidth used.
4.But reduction in M.I. reduces the noise immunity.
5.Used only at very high frequencies.

Applications of FM
1.FM radio broadcasting. 2.Sound transmission in TV. 3.Police
wireless.
Demodulation of FM Signal

Two steps involved in FM demodulation

•Conversion of FM signal into AM signal, Tank or
parallel resonance circuit converts FM into AM
signal.
•An envelope detector is used to extract
modulating signal from modulated signal.
Slope Detector
Demodulation of FM Signal
•The input signal is a frequency modulated signal. It is
applied to the tuned transformer (T1, C1, C2 combination)
which converts the incoming FM signal into AM.
•This AM signal is applied to a simple diode detector
circuit, D1. Here the diode provides the rectification, while
C3 removes any unwanted high frequency components,
and R1 provides a load.
Advantages:
Simple and low cost
Enables FM to be detected without any additional circuitry.
Disadvantages:
Nonlinear operation
Both frequency and amplitude variations are demodulated
and this means that much higher levels of
noiseand interference are experienced.
Demodulation of FM Signal

Balanced slope detector:

Demodulation of FM Signal

•Foster seeley demodulator contains two tuning

circuits and two envelope detectors.

•One section of tuning circuit and envelope

detector works for incoming frequency is greater
than carrier frequency and vice versa for incoming
frequency less than carrier frequency.

•Tuning circuit converts FM signal to AM signal and

Envelope detector extracts message signal from AM
signal.
Foster seeley discriminator
Demodulation of FM Signal
Ratio Demodulator:
Demodulation of FM Signal PLL Demodulator or
detector:
•Phase Locked Loop is closed loop system which
contains Phase detector, VCO and loop filter or LPF
as shown in figure.

•It continuously finds the phase difference between

incoming FM signal and locally generated carrier.
•And based on Phase difference it
generates Modulating signal.
Demodulation of FM Signal

Zero Crossing Demodulator or

detector:
Demodulation of FM Signal

•Zero crossing detector contains hard limiter, Zero crossing

detector, Multi vibrator, and Averaging Circuit.

•Hard limiter is two sided independent clipper which converts

continuous FM signal into Digital.

•Zero crossing detector is differentiator which generates spikes

when signal crosses zero and no. of zero crossings is proportional
to modulating signal amplitude.

•Mono stable multivibrator is generates pulses with constant

amplitude and width for each spike.

•Averaging is LPF circuit which integrates pulses and generates

modulating signal.
 Super Heterodyne FM
Receiver

Antenna: It is passive device which converts electromagnetic signal

into electrical signal.
RF Tuned Amplifier:
It is broad band amplifier which contain tuning circuit and amplifier.
Tuning circuit designed to select 100 stations and amplifier provides
amplification for 20MHz or20 000 KHzband width.
RF tuned amplifier is responsible for
sensitivity, selectivity, Image signal rejection and noise
reduction.
 Super Heterodyne FM
Receiverof frequency mixer and Band Pass
Mixer: It is combination
Filter (BPF) Frequency generates sum and difference
frequency of incoming signal and locally generated
signal. BPF selects difference frequency at the
output whose center frequency is equal to = 10.7MHz.
Local Oscillator:
It is either Colpits or Hartley oscillator.

It generates carrier frequency 10.7MHz.greater than

the
incoming carrier frequency to produce constant
frequency.
IF Amplifier:
It is narrow band, high gain and fixed frequency amplifier which
provides amplification for 20 MHz band width at center
frequency of 10.7 MHz.
 Super Heterodyne FM
Limiter: Receiver
It is combination of hard limiter and BPF.
Hard limiter is two sided independent clipper removes the noise
spikes.
Detector or Demodulator or Discriminator:
It is frequency translator circuit which extracts
modulating signal from FM signal.

De-emphasis:
It is LPF which attenuates frequencies of Audio signal
from 2 KHz to 20 KHz to get the original modulating signal.
Audio Amplifier:
It is low frequency amplifier which provides amplification at (20-
20K) Hz.

Loud Speaker:
It converts Electrical signal into sound or audio signal.
Frequency Division Multiplexing
Allocation of different frequency bands to different
signals is called “Frequency Division Multiplexing”.
And it is used to transmit Radio & TV signals.
Frequency Division Multiplexing

FDM Multiplexing:
•Different carrier frequencies are used for different
stations.
•Modulator is used in the transmitter
•Bandwidth of FDM system,
BWFDM = N. BWCH+ (N-1) BWG

Where, N = No. of channels or stations

BWCH= Bandwidth of each channel
BWG= Bandwidth of guard band

Guard band is frequency gap between two channels

Frequency Division Multiplexing
FDM De-Multiplexing:

•BPF filter is used select channels or stations

•Demodulator is used in the receiver.
 NOISE IN COMMUNICATION
SYSTEMS
Noise: It is an unwanted signal which tends
to interfere with the modulating signal.
Types of noise:
Noise is basically divided into,
1.External Noise
2.Internal Noise
 Classification of Noise
1.External Noise:
•Atmospheric Noise: Radio noise caused by natural
atmospheric processes, primarily lightening
discharges in thunder storms.
•Extraterrestrial Noise: Radio
disturbances from sources other than those
related to the Earth. Cosmic Noise: Random noise that
originates outside the
Earth’s atmosphere.
Solar Noise: Noise that originates from the Sun is called
Solar noise.
 Classification of Noise
• Industrial Noise: Noise generated by automobile
ignition, aircrafts, electric motors, Switch gears,
welding etc.
2. Internal Noise:
• Shot Noise: Random motion of electrons in the
semiconductor devices generates shot noise.
• Thermal or Johnson’s Noise: Random motion of
electrons in the resistor is called Thermal noise.
Vn = KT0BR
Where, K= Boltzmann constant, R= Resistance
T0= Absolute temperature B= Bandwidth
 Noise Temperature and Noise
Figure
Noise temperature(Te): It is a means for specifying
noise in terms of an equivalent temperature. It is
expressed as ,
Te = (Fn-1) T0
Where, Fn = Noise Figure, T0 = Absolute temperature
Noise figure(Fn): It is the ratio of output and input
noise of an amplifier or network. It is expressed
as, =
Where, N = Noise added by the network or
amplifier.
G = gain of an network or amplifier
 Noise Temperature and Noise Figure Noise
Figure of Cascade Amplifier or Network:
Noise Figure of an cascade
network or amplifier is expressed as,
Fn =
Where, F1= Noise figure of 1st stage
G1= Gain of 1st stage
F2= Noise figure of 2nd stage G2 = Gain of 2nd
stage
Fn = Noise figure of nth stage Gn = Gain of
nth stage
 Noise equivalent Bandwidth
When white noise (flat spectrum of frequencies like
white light) is passed through a filter having a
frequency response , some of the noise power is
rejected by the filter and some is passed through
to the output.
The noise equivalent bandwidth is defined in the
following picture,
 Figure of Merit
Figure of Merit (FOM): It is ratio of output SNR to
input SNR of a communication system.
FOM =
Where S0= Output Signal Power
&N0= Output Noise Power
Si= Input Signal Power &Ni= Input Noise Power
Receiver model for noise calculation:
 Receiver model for noise
• The receiver is combination
calculationof Band Pass Filter
(BPF) and Demodulator.
• The BPF is combination of RF Tuned Amplifier,
Mixer and Local Oscillator whose band width is
equal to band width of modulated signal at
transmitter.
• Channel Inter connects transmitter & receiver.
Channel adds noise to the modulated signal while
transmitting and it is assumed to be white noise
whose Power Spectral Density is uniform.
• BPF converts white noise in to color or Band pass
noise or narrow band pass noise.
 Receiver model for noise
calculation
PSD of white noise and Narrow band pass noise are,

Power of band pass noise P = =

Where B = Band width noise.
 Communication system model for noise
calculation

• The communication system model for noise calculation

contains transmitter, channel and receiver.
• Transmitter is replaced by modulator which converts low
frequency modulating signal x(t) into high frequency
bandpass signal with the help of carrier signal.
• Channel is replaced or modelled as additive noise which
adds white noise with PSD η/2 and it contains all
frequencies.
 Communication system model for noise
calculation
• Receiver is modelled as BPF followed by demodulator.
• BPF is combinationof RF tuned amplifier,
mixer , local oscillator.
• Passband or badnwidth of BPF is equal to bandwidth of
modulated signal.
• BPF converts white noise into color or
bandpass noise ηB(t).
Input to BPF is s(t) + ηw(t) Output of BPF is s(t) + ηB(t)
• Demodulator converts high frequency or bandpass signal
into low frequency or baseband signal.
 Bandpass noise
Bandpass noise isrepresentation
represented by,
1.Time Domain representation
• Quadrature representation
• Envelope representation
2.Frequency Domain representation
Quadrature representation:
Bandpass noise can be represented as,
ηB(t) = ηi(t) ocs Wct ηq(t)SinWct Where, ηB(t) =
Bnadpass noise
ηi(t) = Inphase component of lowpass noise ηq(t)
= Quadrature component of lowpass noise
 Quadrature
ηi(t) andrepresentation
ηq(t) can be recovered from
ηB(t),
 Bandpass noise
representation
Frequency domain representation:
Bandpass noise can be represented in
frequency domain as,

Properties of ηB(t):
•ηB(t), ηi(t) , ηq(t) will have same power.
•The PSD of ηi(t) &ηq(t) is,
 Figure of Merit calculation in DSB-SC

• Transmitter contains DSB-SC modulator, whose

output s(t) = 1 coswct.
• Noise generated by the channel is considered as
white noise ηw(t) with uniform noise power
spectral density η/2 .
 Figure of Merit calculation in DSB-SC
• Band pass filter’s bandwidth is equal to modulated
signal bandwidth.
• BPF allows DSB-SC signal and converts white noise
into color noise or bandpass noise ηB(t).
Therefore, o/p of the BPF is yi(t) = s(t) + ηB(t).
• Synchronous detector is used to extract modulating
signal 1 which contain multiplier followed by low
pass filter.
Input signal power is , Si = m2(t)/2, Input noise power, Ni = η. 2fm,
Output signal power, S0 = [1/2]2, Output noise power, N0 = η. fm/2
Substituting these values, FOM=(S0/N0)/(Si/Ni)= 2
 Figure of Merit calculation in SSB-SC
SSB-SC signal,
Output of BPF, yi(t) = s(t) + ηB(t) Bandpass
noise, ηB(t) = ηi(t) ocs Wct ηq(t)SinWct

Input signal power is , Si = m2(t), Input noise power, Ni = η. fm

Output signal power,S0 = m2(t)/4 , Output noise power, N0 = η. fm/4
Substituting these values, FOM= (S0/N0)/(Si/Ni)= 1
 Noise calculation in AM
system
AM signal, S(t) = [Ac+1] Coswct Output of BPF is,
yi(t) = s(t) + ηB(t)
= [Ac+1] Coswct + ηB(t)

Input signal power is , Si = [Ac2/2]+[m2(t)/2]

Input noise power, Ni = 2 η. Fm, Output signal power,S0 =
m2(t) Output noise power, N0 = 2η. Fm
Using these values, FOM= 2.
 Noise calculation in FM
system
Frequency modulated signal s(t) = Ac Cos [ wct + Kfʃ1 dt]
Output of BPF is, yi(t) = s(t) + ηB(t)
= Ac Cos [ wct + Kfʃ1 dt] + ηB(t)

Input signal power is , Si = Ac2/2, Input noise power, Ni = 2 η. Δf

Output signal power, S0 = γ2Kf 2m2(t)
Substituting these values, FOM=
(S0/N0)/(Si/Ni)
FOM = (3/4π2)mf3, Where mf = Δf/fm
 Noise calculation in PM
PM signal S(t) = Ac Cos[w t+ system
c K 1]p

Output of BPF is, yi(t) = s(t) + ηB(t)

= Ac Cos[wct+ Kp1] + ηB(t)

Input signal power is , Si = Ac2/2, Input noise power, Ni = 2 η. Δf

Output signal power,S0 = γ2Kp2m2(t), Output noise power, N0 = 2η.
Fm
Substituting these values and substituting m2(t)= Am2/2
2
FOM= (S0/N0)/(Si/Ni) = mp (Δf/ fm)
 Comparison between different
Modulation Systems with respect to FOM
 ANALOG PULSE MODULATION
Pulse Modulation: SCHEMES
The process of transmitting the signals in the form of
pulses by using some special techniques.

There are two types of pulse modulation systems,

1.Pulse Amplitude Modulation
2.Pulse Time Modulation

Pulse time modulation is further divided into,

•Pulse Width Modulation
•Pulse Position Modulation
 PULSE AMPLITUDE MODULATION(PAM)
In Pulse amplitude modulation, the amplitude of
pulses of carrier pulse train is varied in
accordance with the modulating signal.

In PAM , the pulses can be flat top type or natural

type or ideal type.

Out of these, flat top PAM is widely used because

of easy noise removal.
 PAM
GENERATION

• The sample and hold circuit consists of two FETs

and a capacitor.
• The sampling switch is closed for a short
duration by a short pulse applied to the gate G1
of transistor.
 PAM
• During GENERATION
thisperiod, the capacitor is quickly
charged to voltage equal to
a
sample value of instantaneous
incoming signal x(t)
•Now the sampling switch is opened and
capacitor holds the charge.
•The discharge switch is then closed by a pulse
applied to gate G2 of second transistor.
•Due to this the capacitor is discharged to zero
volts. The discharge switch is then opened and
the capacitor has no voltage.
•Hence the output of sample and hold circuit
consists of a sequence of flat top samples.
 PAM
GENERATION
 Transmission bandwidth of
In PAM signal the pulsePAM
duration τ is assumed to be
very small compared to time period Ts i.e τ< Ts
If the maximum frequency in the modulating signal
x(t) is fm then sampling frequency fs is given by
fs<=2fm Or 1/Ts <= 2fm or Ts <= 1/2fm
Therefore, τ< Ts <= 1/2fm
If ON and OFF time of PAM pulse is equal then
maximum frequency of PAM pulse will be fmax =
1/ τ+ τ = 1/2 τ
Therefore, transmission bandwidth >=1/2 τ >=
1/[2(1/2fm)>= fm
 Demodulation of
PAMreverse process of
Demodulation is the
modulation in which modulating signal is
recovered back from the modulated
signal.
 Demodulation of
• For PAM signals, demodulation
PAM is done using a
holding circuit.
• The received PAM signal is first passed through a
holding circuit and then through a lowpass filer.
• Switch S is closed during the arrival of the pulse
and is opened at the end of the pulse.
• Capacitor C is charged to pulse amplitude value
and holds this value during the interval between
two pulses.
• Holding circuit output is then passed through a
low pass filter to extract the original signal.
 Advantages, Disadvantages of
Advantages: PAM
•It is the simple process for modulation and
demodulation
•Transmitter and receiver circuits are simple and easy to
construct.
Disadvantages:
•Bandwidth requirement is high
•Interference of noise is maximum
•Power requirement is high
Applications:
•Used in microcontrollers for generating control signals
•Used as electronic driver for LED lighting
 SAMPLING
It is the process of converting a continuous time
signal into a discrete time signal
During sampling, sufficient number of samples of
the signal must be taken so that original signal is
correctly represented in its samples and possible
for reconstruction.
Number of samples to be taken depends on
maximum signal frequency present in the signal.
• Different types of samples are,
• Ideal
• Natural
• Flat top
 SAMPLING
Sampling theorem:
A continuous time signal be
may
represented completely
in its samples and recovered back if
the sampling frequency fs>2fm
Nyqyist rate and Nyquist interval:
When sampling rate becomes exactly equal to
2fm samples per second, it is called Nyquist rate
fs=2fm Hz
Maximum sampling is called
interval interval. Nyquist
Ts = 1/fs=1/2fm sec
 NATURAL SAMPLING
In natural sampling, pulse has a finite width equal
to τ.
 NATURAL
SAMPLING
Let an analog continuous time signal x(t) sampled
at a rate fs Hz and sampling function c(t) which is
a train of periodic pulse of width τ and frequency
fs Hz
Case i: When c(t) is high

Switch S is closed and output g(t) is exactly equal to

input

g(t) = x(t)
 NATURAL
Case ii: When c(t) isSAMPLING
low Switch s is open
g(t) = 0
The time domain representation of
naturally sampled signal is given by,
g(t) = x(t)
The spectrum of naturally sampled signal
is given by,
G(f) =
Pulse Width Modulation(PWM)
In PWM, the width of pulses of carrier pulse
train is varied in proportion with amplitude
of modulating signal.
 PWM
GENERATION

A sawtooth generator generates a sawtooth signal

of frequency fs.
This is applied to inverting terminal of comparator.
 PWM
• Modulating GENERATION
x(t) is applied to non-inverting
signal
terminal of comparator.
•Comparator output remains high as long as
instantaneous amplitude of x(t) is higher than sawtooth
signal.
•This gives the PWM output at the output of
comparator.
•The leading edges of PWM waveform coincide with
falling edges of ramp signal
•Therefore, leading edges of PWM signal are always
generated at fixed time intervals
•Occurrence of falling edge of PWM signal is dependent
on instantaneous amplitude of x(t)
 PWM
GENERATION
 DETECTION OF PWM

• The PWM signal received at the input of

detector circuit will contain noise
• This signal is applied to a pulse generator which
regenerates the PMW signal.
• Some of the noise is removed and the pulses are
squared up.
 DETECTION OF PWM
• The regenerated pulses are applied to a reference pulse
generator.
• It produces a train of constant amplitude
and constant width
pulses.
• These pulses are synchronized to the leading edges of
regenerated
PWM pulses but delayed by fixed intervals.
• The regenerated PWM pulses are also applied to a ramp
generator whose o/p is a constant slope ramp for the duration of
the pulse.
• At the end of the pulse a sample and hold circuit retains the final
ramp voltage until it is reset at the end of the pulse.
• The constant amplitude pulses at the o/p
of the reference generator are then added to ramp signal.
•
DETECTION OF PWM
 PULSE POSITION
MODULATION(PPM)
Modulation technique in which position of pulses
of carrier pulse train is varied in accordance with
amplitude of modulating signal.
Generation:
 PPM
• The GENERATION
block diagram is similar to PWM
except monostable multivibrator.
• PWM pulses at the output
obtained
comparator are applied of to a
multivibrator monostable
. multivibrator is a
•triggered negative
monostablecircuit. edgetrailing edge of
At each
PWM signal the monostable output goes high.
•PPM output remains high for a
fixed duration from trailing edge of PWM
signal.
 PPM
GENERATION
DETECTION OF PPM
 DETECTION OF PPM
• The circuit consists of S-R flipflop which is set or
gives high output when reference pulses arrive.
• Reference pulses are generated by a
reference pulse generator.
• Flip-flop circuit is reset and gives low
output at the leading edge of PPM signal.
• The process repeats and we get PWM
pulses at the output of flip-flop.
• PWM pulses are then demodulated
in a PWM demodulator to get original
modulating signal.
DETECTION OF PPM
 Radio receiver
The important measurements
characteristics of
superheterodyne radio receiver are,
• Sensitivity
• Selectivity
• Fidelity
Sensitivity:
• It is defined as the ability of receiver to amplify
weak signals
• It is defined in terms of voltage which must be
applied at the receiver input terminals to provide a
standard output power at the receiver output.
 Radio receiver
• Sensitivity is expressed in milli volts
measurements
• For practical receivers sensitivity is expressed in terms
of signal power required to produce minimum
acceptable output with minimum acceptable noise.

• Sensitivity of superheterodyne radio receiver depends

on
• Gain of RF amplifier
• Gain of IF amplifier
 Radio receiver
Selectivity: measurements
It is defined as the ability of
receiver to reject unwanted signals.

Selectivity depends on
•Receiving frequency
•Response of IF section
 Radio receiver
Fidelity: measurements
It is the ability of a
receiver to reproduce all the modulating
frequencies equally.
 INFORMATION & CHANNEL
Information:
Information is
CAPACITY
defined as a sequence
letters,symbols which carries a message with
alphabets,
of
specific meaning.
Source of Information:

The sources of information can be divided into 2 types.

•Analog Information sources
•Digital information sources
Analog information sources produce
continuous amplitude continuous time electrical
waveforms.

Discrete information sources produces

messages consisting of discrete letters or symbols.
 Information content of a
• message
The information content of a message is represented by
the probability or uncertainty of the event associated
with the message.
• The probability of occurrence of a message is inversely
related to amount of information.
• Therefore, a message with least probability of
occurrence will have maximum amount of information.
• The relation between information content of message
and its probability of occurrence is given by,
Ik = log (1/Pk)
• The unit of information is bit.
• Ik = log 2(1/Pk) bits, Ik = log10 (1/Pk)Decits, Ik = loge(1/Pk)
 Entropy (Average information
Entropy content)
is defined the amount of
as information averagemessage.
by It is
conveyed denoted by a
H.
Properties of Entropy:
1.Entropy is always non negative i.e H(x) ≥ 0.
2. Entropy is zero when probability of all
symbols is zero except probability one symbol
is one.
3. Entropy is maximum when probability
occurrence of all symbols is equal
 Entropy of symbols in long independent
sequences
• In a statistically independent sequence, the occurrence of
a particular symbol during a time interval is independent
of occurrence of symbols at other time interval.
• If P1, P2, P3, ……. PM are the probabilities of occurrences
of M symbols, then the total information content of the
message consisting N symbols is given by,

• To obtain entropy or average information per symbol, the

total information content is divided by number of
symbols in a message.
Therefore, H(X) =
 Entropy of symbols in long dependent
sequences
• In statistically dependent sequences,
occurrence of one message alters the
occurrence of other message.
• Due to this type of dependency, amount of
information coming from a source is gradually
decreased.
• To determine the entropy and information
rate of symbols for long
dependent sequences a statistically
developed which is Markoff special
statisticalmodel is
model.
 Markoff statistical model for information
sources
A random process in which probability of future
values depends on probability of previous events
is called Markoff process.
The sequence generated from such process is
called Markoff sequence.
Entropy of Markoff sources:
Entropy of Markoff sources is defined as average
entropy of each state.
 Information rate of Markoff sources
The information rate of Markoff sources is given by,

R = rH

Where, r = Rate at which symbols are

generated H= Entropy of Markoff sources

Information rate is measured in bits/sec

 Different types of Entropies
Marginal Entropies:

Joint entropy:
Conditional entropy:

Relation between Entropies:

H(X,Y)=H(X)+H(Y/X) = H(Y)+H(X/Y)
 Mutual Information
I(X; Y) of a channel is equal to difference
between initial uncertainty and final uncertainty.
I(X;Y) = Initial uncertainty – final uncertainty. I(X;Y)
= H(X) - H(X/Y) bits/symbol
Where, H(X) - entropy of the source
andH(X/Y) - Conditional Entropy.
Properties of mutual information:
1. I(X;Y) = I(Y;X)
2. I(X;Y)>=0
3. I(X;Y) = H(X) - H(X/Y)
4. I(X;Y)) = H(X)+H(Y)-H(X,Y).
 Discrete communication channel
The communication channel in which both
input and output is a sequence of symbols is
called a discrete communication channel or
coding channel.

A discrete4 channel is characterized by a set of

transition probability Pij which depends on the
parameters of modulator, transmission medium
or channel, noise and demodulator.
 Discrete communication channel
The input to the discrete channel is any of the M
symbols of an alphabet provided and output is
the symbol belonging to same alphabet.
Model of discrete channel is shown below:
 Rate of information over a discrete
channel
• In discrete channels, the average rate of
information transmission is assumed to be the
difference between input data rate and error
rate.
• The average rate of information transmission
over a discrete channel is defined as the amount
of information transmitted the channel
over minus information lost.
•It is denoted by Dt and is given
by,
 Capacity of discrete memoryless channel
The maximum allowable rate of information that
can be transmitted over a discrete channel is
called capacity of memoryless channel.

When channel matches with the source, maximum

rate of transmission takes place.

Therefore, channel capacity,

C= max [I(X,Y)] = Max [ H(X) – H(X/Y) ]
 M-Ary discrete memoryless channel
The channel which transmit and receive one of the
‘m’ possible symbols depending on the present
input and independent of previous input is called
M-Ary discrete memoryless channel.

The relation between conditional entropy and joint

entropy can be written as,

H(X,Y) = H(X/Y) + H(Y) = H(Y/X) + H(X)

 Capacity of Gaussian channel- Shannon
Hartley Theorem
Shannon- Hartley theorem states that the
capacity of Gaussian channel
having bandwidth ‘W’ is given as,

Where, W = Channel bandwidth

S= Average signal
power N= Average
noise power
 Shannon- Fano algorithm
Shannon Fano coding is source encoding technique
which is used to remove the redundancy
(repeated information). The following steps are
involved
1. For a given list of symbols, develop a
corresponding list of probabilities or frequency
counts so that each symbol’s relative frequency
of occurrence is known.
2. Sort the lists of symbols according to
frequency, with the most frequently occurring
symbols at the left and the least common at the
 Shannon- Fano algorithm
3. Divide the list into two parts, with the total
frequency counts of the left part being as close to
the total of the right as possible.
4. The left part of the list is assigned the binary
digit 0, and the right part is assigned the digit 1.
This means that the codes for the symbols in the
first part will all start with 0, and the codes in the
second part will all start with 1.
5. Recursively apply the steps 3 and 4 to each of
the two halves, subdividing groups and adding
bits to the codes until each symbol has become a
corresponding code leaf on the tree.
MATCHED FILTER
Substitute 4.11 in 4.8
Properties of matched filter