Lecture # 1

(Computer
Organization and
Assembly Language)
Introduction

• A computer is a programmable machine that receives input, stores

and manipulates data/information, and provides output in a useful
format.

19/05/25 2
 1.1 DIAGRAM OF A COMPUTER
SYSTEM
A computer is a programmable machine that receives input, stores and manipulates
data//information, and provides output in a useful format.

19/05/25 Diagram Of A Computer System 3

1.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A BASIC
COMPUTER SYSTEM
Basic computer system consist of a Central processing unit (CPU),
memory (RAM and ROM), input/output (I/O) unit.

Address bus

ROM RAM I/O I/O

CPU interface devices

Data bus Control

bus

Block diagram of a basic computer system

19/05/25 4
Basic component of Microcomputer

1. CPU - Central Processing Unit

• the portion of a computer system that carries out the instructions of a
computer program
• the primary element carrying out the computer's functions. It is the unit that
reads and executes program instructions.
• The data in the instruction tells the processor what to do.

Pentium D dual core processors

19/05/25 5
2. Memory
• physical devices used to store data or programs (sequences of
instructions) on a temporary or permanent basis for use in an
electronic digital computer.
• Computer main memory comes in two principal varieties:
random-access memory (RAM) and read-only memory (ROM).
• RAM can be read and written to anytime the CPU commands it, but
ROM is pre-loaded with data and software that never changes, so the
CPU can only read from it.
• ROM is typically used to store the computer's initial start-up
instructions.
• In general, the contents of RAM are erased when the power to the
computer is turned off, but ROM retains its data indefinitely.
• In a PC, the ROM contains a specialized program called the BIOS that
orchestrates loading the computer's operating system from the hard
disk drive into RAM whenever the computer is turned on or reset.

19/05/25 6
3. I/O Unit

• Input/output (I/O), refers to the communication between an

information processing system (such as a computer), and the outside
world possibly a human, or another information processing system.
• Inputs are the signals or data received by the system, and outputs are
the signals or data sent from it
• Devices that provide input or output to the computer are called
peripherals
• On a typical personal computer, peripherals include input devices like
the keyboard and mouse, and output devices such as the display and
printer. Hard disk drives, floppy disk drives and optical disc drives serve
as both input and output devices. Computer networking is another
form of I/O.

19/05/25 7
Evolution of Microprocessor

19/05/25 8
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
• 1st generation: 1945 - 1955
• Tubes, punchcards
• 2nd generation : 1955 - 1965
• transistors
• 3rd generation: 1965 – 1980
• Integrated circuits
• 4th generation: 1980 –
• PCs and workstations

19/05/25 9
 1st generation (1945-1955)
• Programming was done in machine language
• No operating system
• Programming and maintenance done by one group of people
• The main features of First Generation are:
• Vacuum tube technology
• Unreliable
• Supported Machine language only
• Very costly
• Generate lot of heat
• Slow Input/Output device
• Huge size
• Need of A.C.
• Non-portable
• Consumed lot of electricity

19/05/25 10
 ENIAC –
The first electronic computer (1946)

18,000 tubes
300 Tn
170 KWatt

19/05/25 11
2nd generation (1955-1965)

• Transistor-based
• Fairly reliable
• Clear distinction between designers, manufacturers,
users, programmers, and support personnel.
• Only afforded by governments, universities or large
companies (millions $)
• Program was first written on paper (FORTRAN) and
then punched into cards
• Cards were then delivered to the user.
• Mostly used for scientific and technical calculations
• Solving differential equations
•

19/05/25 12
2nd generation (1955-1965)

• The main features of Second Generation are:

• Use of transistors
• Reliable as compared to First generation computers
• Smaller size as compared to First generation computers
• Generate less heat as compared to First generation computers
• Consumed less electricity as compared to First generation computers
• Faster than first generation computers
• Still very costly
• A.C. needed
• Support machine and assembly languages

19/05/25 13
3rd generation (1965-1980)
• IC-based operation
• IBM develops compatible systems
• Tradeoffs in performance, memory, I/O etc).
• Greater MHz/$
• The main features of Third Generation are:
• IC used
• More reliable
• Smaller size
• Generate less heat
• Faster
• Lesser maintenance
• Still costly
• A.C. needed
• Consumed lesser electricity
• Support high-level language
19/05/25 14
4th generation (1980-1990)

• LSI-based PCs
• VLSI circuits having about 5000 transistors and other circuit elements
and their associated circuits on a single chip made it possible to have
microcomputers of fourth generation
• Significantly cheaper
• User-friendly software
• 2 dominant operating systems:
• MS DOS: IBM PC (8088, 80286, 80386, 80486)
• UNIX: RISC workstations

19/05/25 15
• The main features of Fourth Generation are:
• VLSI technology used
• Very cheap
• Portable and reliable
• Use of PC's
• Very small size
• Pipeline processing
• No A.C. needed
• Concept of internet was introduced
• Great developments in the fields of networks
• Computers became easily available

19/05/25 16
5th generation (1990-)

• PC networks
• Network operating systems
• Each machine runs its own operating system
• Users don’t care where their programs are being
executed
• , the VLSI technology became ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration)
technology, resulting in the production of microprocessor chips
having ten million electronic components.
• This generation is based on parallel processing hardware and AI
(Artificial Intelligence) software.

19/05/25 17
• The main features of Fifth Generation are:
• ULSI technology
• Development of true artificial intelligence
• Development of Natural language processing
• Advancement in Parallel Processing
• Advancement in Superconductor technology
• More user friendly interfaces with multimedia features
• Availability of very powerful and compact computers at cheaper
rates

19/05/25 18
DATA SIZE
Nibble 4 bit

Byte 8 bit

Word 16 bit

Long word 32 bit

19/05/25 19
Fetching & Execution Cycles

• Fetching Cycles
• The fetch cycle takes the instruction required from
memory, stores it in the instruction register, and
• moves the program counter on one so that it points to
the next instruction.
• Execute cycle
• The actual actions which occur during the execute cycle
of an instruction.
• depend on both the instruction itself and the addressing
mode specified to be used to access the data that may be
required.

19/05/25 20
Fetching an instruction

• Step 1
Instruction pointer (program counter) hold the address
of the next instruction to be fetch.

19/05/25 21
FETCHING AN INSTRUCTION
(cont.)
• Step 2

19/05/25 22
FETCHING AN INSTRUCTION (cont.)

• Step 3

19/05/25 23
FETCHING AN INSTRUCTION (cont.)
• Step 4

19/05/25 24
FETCHING AN INSTRUCTION (cont.)

• Step 5

19/05/25 25
FETCHING AN INSTRUCTION (cont.)

• Step 6

19/05/25 26
Internal structure and basic
operation of microprocessor

Address bus
ALU Register
Section
Data bus

Control and timing

section Control bus

Block diagram of a microprocessor

19/05/25 27
 Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU)
• The component that performs the arithmetic and logical
operations
• the most important components in a microprocessor, and is
typically the part of the processor that is designed first.
• able to perform the basic logical operations (AND, OR), including
the addition operation.
• The inclusion of inverters on the inputs enables the same ALU
hardware to perform the subtraction operation (adding an
inverted operand), and the operations NAND and NOR.

19/05/25 28
Internal structure of ALU

2 bits of ALU 4 bits of ALU

19/05/25 29
Control unit

• The circuitry that controls the flow of information through the

processor, and coordinates the activities of the other units within it.
• In a way, it is the "brain within the brain", as it controls what
happens inside the processor, which in turn controls the rest of the
PC.
• On a regular processor, the control unit performs the tasks of
fetching, decoding, managing execution and then storing results.

19/05/25 30
Internal structure of control unit

19/05/25 31