PROBLEM–SOLVING

CSEC INFORMATION
TECHNOLOGY
 INTRODUCTION

How are instructions given to the computer?

Computer programs – finite set of precise
instructions written in a computer language
Before program is written we must find a way to
solve the problem
After figuring out how to solve the problem we
then translate the solution into a language
meaningful to the computer
 INTRODUCTION

Giving precise, unambiguous instructions is

not inherent in human nature
Consider the following: Proceed a mile or so
down the road until you reach the
roundabout. Turn left at the roundabout and
follow the road until you reach a green house
on the right hand side. The Post office is
about the 3rd or 4th building on the right after
the green house. You can’t miss it!
 INTRODUCTION

Problem-solving statements/ instructions should

be:
Precise
Unambiguous
Must be in a logical sequence
Finite

In your own words explain the terms listed

above.
ALGORITHM

… is a sequence of precise
instructions which results in a
solution
 PROBLEM-SOLVING ON THE COMPUTER

Examples of everyday problems:

Write a recipe for making a cheese sandwich

Write instructions to teach your mom how to
retrieve voice message from a generic cell phone
Write instructions to give directions to a visitor to
get to your Home Room the front Office.
Write instructions to tell a novice how to
download music from the Internet.
 PROBLEM-SOLVING ON THE COMPUTER

The design of any computer program involves two

phases:
 The Problem-solving Phase
 The Implementation Phase

 Problem-Solving Phase comprises the following

steps:
1. Define the problem
2. Find a solution to the problem
3. Evaluate alternative solutions
4. Represent the most efficient solution as an algorithm
5. Test the algorithm for correctness
IMPLEMENTATION PHASE
1. Translate the algorithm into a
Programming
Language such as Pascal or C

 Free of Syntax Errors

 Logic Error

2. Test the program to ensure it produces the

correct results

3. Document the program

 DEFINING THE PROBLEM

Ensure that you understand the problem

It helps the programmer to understand what is

given and what is required
 If the programmer does not fully understand
what is required, he/she cannot produce the
desired solution to the problem
 DEFINING THE PROBLEM

Defining the problem can be

accomplished by decomposing the
problem into three key components:
1. What is given (the inputs)

2. The tasks that must be performed

(processing)
3. The expected results (the output)
 THE DEFINING DIAGRAM

Define the problem by constructing a defining

diagram
A table with three columns which represents the
three components: input, processing and output.
E.g. A program is required to read three
numbers and calculate and print the total.
INPUT PROCESSING OUTPUT
3 numbers 1. Get 3 Total
e.g. Num1, numbers
num2, num3 2. Ad numbers
together
3. Print total
 THE DEFINING DIAGRAM

Input refers to the source data provided - easily

identified by the keywords – given, read, accept
or input
Output refers to the end result required -
keywords are print, display, produce, output
Processing are the actions must be performed
to achieve the required output - it answers the
question: What must I do with the inputs in order
to produce the desired result?
 THE DEFINING DIAGRAM

In the defining diagram, the actions must be

listed in a logical sequential manner
All necessary actions must be explicitly stated

The processing section is NOT the solution to the

problem. It’s simply the actions that must be
done in order to solve the problem
Note that in some cases the input, processing and
output statements might not be as explicitly
stated.
HOME WORK
Pg 54 of Text,

Ques 5: A, B & C
 PROBLEM 1

Given three integers Age1, Age2, Age3,

representing the age of three boys respectively,
write a solution to find and display their average
age.
 DEFINING DIAGRAM
Two major tasks to be performed, each
consisting of multiple actions:
INPUT PROCESSING OUTPUT

age1 Read/accept/get age1, Average-

age2 age2, age2 age
age3
AverageAge  (age1
+age2+age3)/3

Print Average_Age
Analyse the following problems by dividing them into input, process and output

Write a program to calculate and output an individual’s age.

The program should also output the individual’s name.

Write a program to enter a number, double the number and

output the result.

Write a program to accept three numbers and produce an

output of their sum, average and product.

Write a program to calculate and print the length of rope

needed to cord off a rectangular pool.
 PROBLEM 2

The cost of a new car is the sum of the

wholesale cost, the local sales tax and the
dealer’s percentage mark-up. Assuming that
the dealer’s mark-up is 10 percent of the
wholesale cost and the sales tax is 6 percent,
design an algorithm to read a car ID and the
wholesale cost of the car (a real value) and
print the car ID and the cost to the consumer.
 PROBLEM 3

Here, input and output data are clearly stated.

To determine the processing steps we may ask
“What should I do with wholesale cost in order to
find the cost to the consumer?”

INPUT PROCESSING OUTPUT

Car_ID 1. Read/get wholesale-cost Car_ID
Wholesale_cost 2. Mark_Up  Wholesale _Cost * Consumer_Cost
10%
3. Sales_tax  Whole_Cost * 6 %
4. Consumer_Cost
Wholesale_Cost
+Mark_Up+Sales_Cost
5. Print Car_ID
6. Print Consumer_Cost
 THE PROBLEM WITH PROBLEM SPECIFICATION

Many real-world programming problems are not

always precise
Initial descriptions are often vague, and
ambiguous
Students should be encouraged to evaluate
problem statements and ask questions if they are
perceived as ambiguous
Also, some information may be implicit in the
problem statement and therefore should be taken
into account when defining the problem
 THE PROBLEM WITH PROBLEM SPECIFICATION

Have students evaluate several problem statements,

ranging from simple to complex, some precise, some
ambiguous, lacking pertinent information.

Here are some examples of imprecise problem

statements:
#4: Write a program to print a list of all the employees
who have been in the company for over five years
#5: Write a program that reads a file that contains
information on the height, weight and age of 100
children. The program should print the names of all
the children who are overweight.
 FINDING A SOLUTION TO THE PROBLEM

Introduction

The Concept of Variables

Choosing Variable Names

Initialization of Variables
 FINDING A SOLUTION TO THE PROBLEM
INTRODUCTION

Now that we have defined the problem, we know

what we need to do. We must now figure out how
to do it.
A problem can have many different solutions

Let students arrive at one that works, however

long-winded
Once a solution is found, it can then be reviewed
to see how it can be optimized, or made more
efficient
The first approach in deriving a solution to a
 FINDING A SOLUTION TO THE PROBLEM
INTRODUCTION
Problem #6: Find and print the average of three
numbers
Define the problem
INPUT PROCESSING OUTPUT
3 Numbers Read/get 3 numbers average
Say num1, Find the average
num2, num3 Print average

Create sample data: sample input data 5, 3, 25

Execute each processing step in the defining
diagram manually
 FINDING A SOLUTION TO THE PROBLEM
INTRODUCTION

Having completed a manual solution to the

problem, the next step is to write your solution as
a sequence of instructions
Initial solution
Get the first number, call it num1
Get the second number, call it num2
Get the third number, call it num3
Add num1 + num2 + num3
Divide result by 3
Print result
Stop
 FINDING A SOLUTION TO THE PROBLEM
THE CONCEPT OF VARIABLES

In our solution to problem #6, we did not tell the

computer where to put the result of the add operation.
The result must be stored somewhere so it can be
accessed later.

Grandma’s fluffy pancakes: Method:

Sift flour in mixing bowl ...
Melt the butter in a frying pan ...
Pour batter into a bowl ...

Just as we need containers to hold or store ingredients,

likewise, in computation, we need something to store or
hold the values we manipulate
 FINDING A SOLUTION TO THE PROBLEM
THE CONCEPT OF VARIABLES

In the computer, values are stored in memory

locations.
There are many memory locations, so in order to
keep track of where our values are stored we
need to place a label or identifier on a particular
memory location.

The label or identifier is called a variable.

A variable is a symbolic name assigned to a
memory location that stores a particular value
 FINDING A SOLUTION TO THE PROBLEM
THE CONCEPT OF VARIABLES

When we say num1, num2, etc we are actually

defining a variable or an identifier for each
number, so that we can refer to (access) it later.
We need to tell the computer where to put the
result of the addition of num1, num2, num3
Add num1 + num2 + num3 storing in Sum

This would tell the computer that the result of the

computation should be stored in a memory
location called Sum.
 FINDING A SOLUTION TO THE PROBLEM
THE CONCEPT OF VARIABLES

Likewise, we must address a similar issue in the

last two statements where we stated,
Divide result by 3
Print result

Computations are performed by the ALU, part of

the CPU and results are temporarily stored in
registers within the cpu
These values must be stored in memory locations
if they are to be accessed later
 THE CONCEPT OF VARIABLES

The word variable is derived from the verb ‘to

vary’. This means that the value stored in a
particular location can change from time to time,
although the label remains the same.
When new values are placed into previously
assigned memory locations, the old values are
replaced by the new .
 FINDING A SOLUTION TO THE PROBLEM
THE CONCEPT OF VARIABLES

It is always useful to illustrate the concept of

a variable by using diagrams to show the
memory locations:

Memory locations
Num 5
Variable 1 3
Num
s
2 25
Num
3
 FINDING A SOLUTION TO THE PROBLEM
THE CONCEPT OF VARIABLES

We can now revise the initial solution to include

the new variables called sum and average

Get three numbers, say num1, num2, num3

Add num1, num2, num3, storing in sum
Divide sum by 3, storing in average
Print average
 THE CONCEPT OF VARIABLES
CHOOSING VARIABLE NAMES

It’s good practice to choose variable names that

reflect the kind of data that is being stored
It helps the programmer as well as the reader to
understand the solution better
It’s important that students grasp the concept of
variables very early in the problem-solving phase.
 EVALUATE ALTERNATIVE SOLUTIONS

Having found a solution to a problem the

programmer should proceed to explore
alternative solutions
The aim is to arrive at the most efficient
solution
The initial solution is usually the first that
comes to mind, but is not always the best
solution
The programmer must evaluate all feasible
alternatives and choose the optimal solution
 EVALUATE ALTERNATIVE SOLUTIONS

Points to consider when developing alternative

solutions.
Can the result be derived differently?
Can the solution be made more general? Would it
work if there were 100 integers, instead of 3?
Can the solution be used for another problem?
E.g. Average temperature or average grade?
Can the number of steps be reduced and still
maintain the logic? Can it be made more robust?
What would happen if incorrect data is entered?
 REDUCING THE NUMBER OF STATEMENTS

We can reduce the number of statements by

combining two arithmetic statements into one:
1. Add num1, num2, num3 can be written as
Sum = num1 + num2 + num3
(the variable sum is assigned the value of
num1 plus num2 plus num3)
2. Divide sum by 3 storing in average can be written
Average = sum/3
We can combine the two statements to produce:
Average = sum/3
 REVISED SOLUTION

Option 2 Option 1
Get num1, num2, num3 Get num1, num2, num3
Average = (num1 + num2 Sum = num1 + num2 +
num3)/3 num3
Print Average Average = sum/3
Stop Print Average
Stop
The most efficient solution should have the following
attributes:
• Should be maintainable
• Should be memory efficient
• Should be robust
 INITIALIZATION OF VARIABLES

Variables that are used as counters or used to

store totals should always be assigned an initial
value of 0 before they are incremented.
This is called initialization

E.g. Count = 0

This ensures that the variable is cleared of any

values that may have been assigned in a previous
execution of the program.
 WHAT IS AN ALGORITHM?

At this time, we can now introduce the term ‘algorithm’.

An algorithm is a sequence of precise instructions for
solving a problem in a finite number of steps.
Properties:
 Algorithms must:
 be precise,
 be unambiguous,
 be logically sequenced,
 give the correct solution an all cases, and
 eventually end.
 WHAT IS AN ALGORITHM?

Algorithmic structure

Header : Algorithm’s name or title

Declaration : Brief description of algorithm and
variables used. i.e. A statement of
purpose as well as the initialization of
variables
Body : Sequence of steps
Terminator : An end statement
 ALGORITHMIC STRUCTURE

Problem:
Write an algorithm that prompts a student to
enter his/her name and age, accepts the
name and age and then display a welcoming
message on the screen such as “hello
Michael! You are 16 years old!”

Write the algorithm identifying the header,

declaration, body and terminator.
 ALGORITHMIC STRUCTURE

Algorithm Student data {Header}

This algorithm displays a student’s
name and age on the screen. {declaration}
Start
Display “Enter your name:”
Accept Name
Display “Enter your age:” {Body
Accept Age }
Display “Hello”, Name
Display “You are”, Age, “years old”
Stop {Terminator}
 FLOWCHARTS VERSUS PSEUDOCODE
Pseudocode is more concise, closely
resembles programming language
Flowchart gives good view of the structure
and flow of the logic
Beginners tend to follow the logic easier
when using flowcharts rather than
pseudocode
Longer, more complex solutions are better
represented using pseudocode.
 FLOWCHARTS VERSUS PSEUDOCODE
Usage is a matter of preference for experienced
programmers
Students should be asked to use both flowcharts
as well as pseudocode to represent algorithms
Flowcharts must use special geometrical objects
that designate the basic steps of a program:

Input/ Processin Decision Start/

Output g/ Stop
Assignme
nt
 PSEUDOCODE AND FLOWCHART
Start
Start
Get num1, num2, num3
Average (num1 + num2 + num3)/3 Read
num1,
Print Average num2,
num3
Stop
Average
(num1+num2+num3)
/3

Print
Average

Stop
 SELECTION STRUCTURES
Selection (decision)
The IF…THEN selection statement

Syntax:
IF (expression) THEN
{Statement (s)} Execute this statement if
logical expression is TRUE

This construct is used when no action needs to be

performed if the expression returns false.
 SELECTION STRUCTURES

Get Mark This requires only that

IF Mark >= 50 THEN the expression “Well
done” be printed
Print “Well done”
should the student
Stop score 50 marks or
more.

No action is intended
should the mark be
less than 50
 SELECTION STRUCTURES
IF … THEN … ELSE construct syntax:

IF (expression) THEN

{Statements} executed only if condition
is TRUE
ELSE
{Statements} executed only if condition
is FALSE
ENDIF

Only one group of statements could be executed

each time the program is executed.
 SELECTION STRUCTURES

Get Mark  “Well done” will be

IF Mark >= 50 THEN printed should the
PRINT “ Well done” student’s mark be 50
or greater.
ELSE
PRINT “Must do
If the mark is less than
better”
50 then the statement
ENDIF
“Must do better”
Stop would be printed.
 SELECTION STRUCTURES

A worker in a clothing factory is paid an additional

incentive according to the amount of shirts she folds.
The basic salary is $300.00 per week. Should the worker
fold 500 or more shirts per week, an additional 15%, is
added to her basic salary. If the worker folds less than
500 shirts however, she is paid just the basic salary.

Write an algorithm to determine and print the salary of

the worker.
 SELECTION STRUCTURES

Write an algorithm to accept any two numbers,

the first a numerator and the second the
denominator. If the second is equal to zero print
“Cannot divide by 0”. Otherwise divide the first
number by the second and print the answer.
 SELECTION STRUCTURES

A teacher has realized an error in his marking of

students’ scripts. He has therefore decided to
credit all students who got 55 marks and under
with an additional 10 marks. Those who got
more than 55 would be credited with an
additional 15 marks. Write an algorithm to
accept the mark from a student in a class.
Calculate and print the student’s adjusted mark.
 SELECTION STRUCTURES

A store offers customers a discount of 15% if

the cost of any item purchased is equal to or
exceeds $200.00. Should the cost be less
than $200.00 however, then a 5% discount is
applied. Write an algorithm to accept the cost
of an item. Apply the relevant discount and
calculate and print the net cost (cost –
discount).
 REPETITION STRUCTURES
Repetition or Loop or Iteration structures allow
statements to be repeated a fixed number of
times or until some condition evaluates to false.
There are three repetition constructs:

1. FOR Loop - counted loop

2. REPEAT Loop - conditional loop
3. WHILE Loop - conditional loop
 REPETITION STRUCTURES

The FOR loop construct syntax:

FOR <counter> = <start value> TO <end value>
DO
{Statements}
ENDFOR

e.g. FOR X = 1 to 10 DO
{Statements to be executed}
ENDFOR
 REPETITION STRUCTURES

The FOR loop is used when the required number

of iterations (loops) is known beforehand
The statements are repeated as long as the value
of the identifier specified by the <counter>
element does not exceed the value specified by
<end>. A comparison is made each time the
loop iterates to check whether the <end> is
exceeded. If it is not then the counter value is
incremented by one (the default step value)
 REPETITION STRUCTURES

The 12 workers employed in the folding section

of a clothing factory are each paid a basic salary
of $500.00 per week. An incentive is offered
according to the amount of shirts folded. Should
a worker fold 600 or more shirts per week a
bonus of 20%, is added to his/her basic salary. If
a worker does not fold as much as 600 shirts
however, he/she is paid just the basic salary.

Write an algorithm to determine and print the

salary of each worker.
 REPETITION STRUCTURES

A teacher has realized an error in his marking after having

marked all his students’ scripts. He has therefore decided to
credit all students who got less than 60 with an additional 5
marks. Those who got 60 and over would be credited with an
additional 15 marks. Write an algorithm to accept the initial
marks obtained by the 20 students in the class. Calculate and
print each student’s adjusted mark.
The teacher would like to determine the class average after the
marks are credited. Should the class average exceed 60,
“Instructions well received” should be printed. Otherwise,
“Reconsider Teaching Methods” should be printed.
 REPETITION STRUCTURES

A store offers customers a discount of 15% if

the total cost of items purchased is equals or
exceeds $400.00. Should the total be less
than $400.00 then 5% discount is given.
Write an algorithm to accept the costs of five
items. Calculate and print the total cost.
Apply the relevant discount and calculate
and print the net cost (total cost – discount).
 REPETITION STRUCTURES
WHILE Loop
The WHILE Loop construct syntax:

INPUT Value
WHILE (expression) Do
{statements} executed if Boolean argument
in logical expression is true
INPUT value to be tested
ENDWHILE
 REPETITION STRUCTURES
WHILE Loop
In processing, the argument (condition) between
WHILE and DO is tested to see if it is true.
If the condition returns true, the statement(s)
that follow DO will be executed.
If the condition returns false, execution of the
WHILE statement is stopped. It is possible for
the loop never to be executed if the initial input
renders the condition is to be proven false.
 REPETITION STRUCTURES
WHILE Loop
The while loop can iterate indefinitely, as long as
the condition in the argument expression remains
true. It is terminated only when the condition
returns false.

Write an algorithm that reads a number of

arbitrary integers and find the average of all
numbers read. The program should be
terminated if the sentinel value 999 is
entered.
 REPETITION STRUCTURES
WHILE Loop

Write an algorithm to accept an unspecified

amount of integers. Calculate and print the sum
of the numbers entered. The algorithm should
also determine and print the highest number
entered. The process should be terminated if the
number entered exceeds 1000.

Write an algorithm to accept the price of items

purchased at a supermarket. The entry of prices
should continue as long as the price entered is
not $101.00. Calculate and print the total cost of
items purchased.
 REPETITION STRUCTURES
REPEAT Loop

Repeat Loop construct syntax:

REPEAT
{statements to be executed}
UNTIL (Boolean expression)

The repeat loop is used to iterate a sequence of

events until a specific condition becomes true.
 The statements in the body of a Repeat loop are
executed at least once, because the test of the
condition takes place at the end of the loop.
 TRACE TABLES

State what is printed when the following algorithm

is executed.

FOR X = 1 to 3 DO
FOR Y = 1 to 3 DO
Product = Y * X
Print Product
ENDFOR
ENDFOR
 TRACE TABLES
What’s printed by the following Algorithm?
AMOUNT = 2
G=4
WHILE AMOUNT < 50 Do
G = G*2
AMOUNT = AMOUNT + G
Print AMOUNT, G
ENDWHILE
 TRACE TABLES
INPUT A,B,C
A=B+C
B=A–C
C= A+B
IF A > B THEN
C=A–B
ELSE
C=B–A
ENDIF
Print A,B,C

State what is printed by the algorithm above when the following data is
input:

(i) 5, 7, 9
(ii) 9, -7, 5
 TRACE TABLES

Complete the trace table based on the following

algorithm.
B=2
C=4 B C TOTAL
Total = 3 2 4 3
WHILE B <= 45 Do
B=B+C
C=C+B
Total = Total + C
ENDWHILE
Print Total
 LIST PROCESSING USING ARRAYS

What is an Array?
Accessing the Elements in an Array

Initializing Arrays
Reading Values into an Array
Displaying Array Values
Traversing Arrays
Manipulating Arrays
 TOP-DOWN DESIGN METHODOLOGY

 What is Top-Down Design?

 Hierarchy Charts

 Sub-dividing a Problem into Modules

 Steps in Modularization

 Representing Modules in Pseudocode and Flowcharts

 Communication between Modules

 Advantages of Top-Down Design Method

 FROM ALGORITHMS TO PASCAL PROGRAMS

Translating Algorithms to Specific Programming

Language
Structure of a Pascal Program

Pascal in a Nutshell

Translating Pseudocode into Pascal Code

Summary
 PROGRAM EXECUTION ON THE COMPUTER

Steps in Executing a Program on the

Computer
Types of Errors

Debugging
THANK YOU
For your attention