What is a problem?


Generally, it is a situation you
want to change!
A is a tha
conforms the learner,
problem that requires
situation t
resolution, and for which the path of
the answer is not immediately
known.
There is an obstacle that prevents
one from setting a clear path to the
 What is a Problem
Solving
 has been
Problem Solving
defined as higher-order
cognitive process that
requires the modulation and
control of more routine or
fundamental skills" (Goldstein
& Levin, 1987).
A. Understanding
Reasoning 
Mathematical reasoning refers
to the ability of a person to
analyze problem situations and
construct logical arguments to
justify his process or hypothesis,
to create both conceptual
foundations and connections, in
order for him to be able to
process available information.
NCTM pointed out
that….

People who can reason and think
analytically tend
To note patterns, structure, or
regularities in both real-world
situations and symbolic objects;
To ask if those patterns are
accidental or if they occur for a
reason
To conjecture and prove
Reasoni
ng 
Students are
expected to:
1. Define athe
2. Identify statement
hypothesis and
conclusion in a statement
3. Write conditional statements
4. Write the Converse, Inverse,
Contrapositive of a given
conditional statement.
B. Inductive and Deductive
Reasoning

What kind of thinking is
used when solving
problems?
Inductive or
deductive?
 Inductive
Reasoning
 examination of specific
The type of reasoning that forms a
conclusion based on the
examples is called inductive reasoning.

Specific
Conclusio
Exampl
es n
formed by using
reasoning The
is ofteninductive
called a conjecture,
sinceit
conclusion may or may not
be correct.
 Exampl
Example
es 
1: A baby cries, then cries, then cries to get
a milk.
We conclude that if a baby cries, he/she
gets a
Example 2: milk.
Here is a sequence of 6, 9,
numbers: 3, 12,
____
WhatWeis the
can5easily
th number?
conclude that the next
number is 15.
Example

3: You are asked to find the 7t
6th and term in the h
sequence:
1,3, first
The 6, two
10, numbers
15, ______differ
, _____
by 2.
The 2nd and 3rd numbers differ by 3.
The next difference is 4, then 5. So,
the next difference will be 6 and Thus
21
the+6th7 term
= is 15+ 6 = 21 while the 7th
Take note!

Inductive reasoning is not used
just to predict the next
number in a list.
We use inductive reasoning to
make a conjecture about an
arithmetic procedure.

Make a conjecture about the

example 2 and 3 in the previous
 Exerci
se
Use Inductive
Reasoning to
Make a Conjecture
A. Consider the following p r o c e d

u r e:
1. Pick a number.
2. Multiply the number by 8,
3. Add 6 to the product
4. Divide the sum by 2, and
5. Subtract 3.
Complete the above procedure for several
 Exerci
se
Use Inductive
Reasoning to
Make a Conjecture
B. Consider the following proce dure:
1. Pick a number.
2. Multiply the number by 9,
3. Add 15 to the product,
4. Divide the sum by 3, and
5. Subtract 5.
Complete the above procedure for several
different numbers. Use inductive reasoning to make a
conjecture about the relationship between the size of
the resulting number and the size of the original
number.
 Exerci
se
Use Inductive
Reasoning
to Make a
Conjecture
C. Consider the following

procedure:
1. List 1 as the first odd number
2. Add the next odd number to 1.
3. Add the next odd number to the sum.
4. Repeat adding the next odd number to the
previous sum.

Construct a table to summarize the result. Use

inductive reasoning to make a conjecture about the
sum obtained.
 Exerci
se
Use Inductive
Reasoning
to Make a

Conjecture
D. Observe the two sets of polygons
below:

What is the name of a polygon that

can be used to describe the polygons in
column 2?
polygons in Use inductive reasoning
 Exerci
se
Use Inductive
Reasoning
to Make a
Conjecture
Scientists often use inductive reasoning. For instance,
Galilei Galileo
(1564–1642) used inductive reasoning to discover that
the time required for a pendulum to complete one swing,
called the period of the pendulum, depends on the length of
the pendulum. Galileo did not have a clock, so he measured
the periods of pendulums in “heartbeats.” The following
table shows some results obtained for pendulums of various
lengths. For the sake of convenience, a length of 10 inches
has been designated as 1 unit. Use the data in the table and
inductive reasoning to answer each
of the following questions.
a. If a pendulum has a length of 49
units, what is its period?
b. If the length of a pendulum
is quadrupled, what
happens to its period?
 Take
note:based on 
Conclusions
inductive reasoning
may be incorrect.
As an illustration,
consider the circles
shown. For each circle, all
possible line segments
have been drawn to
connect each dot on the
circle with all the other
dots on the circle. For
each circle, count the
number of regions formed
by the line segments that
 Counterexamples

A statement is a true
statement provided that it is
true in all cases. If you can
find one case not
statementis for which a
true, called
a th
counterexample,
statement is a false then e
statement
 Exercise 1

Verify that each of the following
statements is a false statement by
finding a counterexample.

a. 𝒙 > 𝟎
For all numbers x:

b. 𝒙𝟐 > 𝒙
c. 𝒙−𝟏 < 𝒙
MMW by Joseph G. Taban ,
 Exercise 2

Verify that each of the following
statements is a false statement by
finding a counterexample.

For all numbers x:

 DEDUCTIVE
REASONING:
Another type of reasoning is
called
deductive reasoning.
Deductive reasoning is
distinguished from inductive
reasoning in that it is the process
of reaching a conclusion by
applying general principles and
 
Mathematics is essentially
deductive reasoning
Deductive reasoning is always
valid
Deductive reasoning makes use
of undefined terms, formally
defined terms, axioms,
theorems, and rules of
 Examples of Deductive
Reasoning
Example

1: If a number is divisible by 2, then it must
be even. 12 is divisible by 2.
Therefore, 12 is an even number.
Example 2:
All math teachers know how to play
sudoku. Resty is a math teacher.
Therefore, Resty knows how to play
sudoku.
 Examples of Deductive
Reasoning
Example

3: If a student is a DOST scholar, he
receives a monthly allowance.
If a student receives a monthly
allowance, his parents will be happy.
Therefore, if a student is a DOST
scholar, his parents will be happy.

If ∠A and ∠B are
Example 4:

supplementary angles. If m∠A =

Take note:

The essence of deductive reasoning
is drawing a conclusion from a
given statement.
The deductive reasoning works best
when the statements used in the
argument are true and the
statements
in the argument clearly follow from one
another.
 Logic
Puzzles 
 Logic Puzzles can be solved by deductive reasoning
and a chart that enables us to display the given
information in a visual manner.
Example 1:
Each of four neighbors, Sean, Maria, Sarah, and Brian,
has a different occupation (editor, banker, chef, or dentist).
From the following clues, determine the occupation
of each neighbor.
1. Maria gets home from work after the banker but before
the dentist.
2.Sarah, who is the last to get home from work, is not
the editor.
3.The dentist and Sarah leave for work at the same
 SOLUTIO
CLUES N
: 1.Maria gets home from work after the banker but before the
dentist.
2.Sarah, who is the last to get home from work, is not the
editor.
3.The
4. Thedentist
bankerand Sarah
lives
Editor Banke
r
next leave forBria
door to
Chef Dentist 
work at
n. the same time.
 We know from clue 1 that the
banker is not the last to get
Sean home, and we know from
X X X clue 2 that Sarah is the last
Maria to get home; therefore,
X X X Sarah is not the banker.
Sarah
X X X  From clue 3, Sarah is not
the dentist.
Brian
X X X
 As a result, Sarah is the
 From clue 1: Maria is not Chef.
the banker or the  Maria is the Editor.
dentist.
 From clue 2, Sarah is not  From clue 4, Brian is not
the editor. the banker.
 Brian is the Dentist.
 EXERCISE

 Brianna, Ryan, Tyler, and Ashley were recently
elected as the new class officers (president,
vice president, secretary, treasurer) of the
sophomore class at Summit College.

From the following clues, determine which

position each holds:
1.Ashley is younger than the president
but older than the
treasurer.
2.Brianna and the secretary are both the
same age, and
they are the youngest members of the
Group Activity:

Distribute the Activity
Sheet: Watch the movie
after 20 minutes.
Can you solve _Einstein’s
Riddle
- Dan Van der Vieren.mp4
C. INTUITION, PROOF, AND CERTAINTY


1. INTUITION
Intuition is the ability to acquire
knowledge without proof, evidence, or
conscious reasoning, or without
understanding how the knowledge was
acquired.

“Intuition is a sense of knowing

how to act spontaneously, without
needing to know why” – Sylvia Clare
Example of Intuition

Mina and Sarah are getting ready
for school. Mina said, “ I have a
very strong feeling that it will rain
this afternoon. Let us each bring a
jacket”
 

By intuition, we know truth

simply by the process of
introspection and immediate
awareness.
2.Proof

A proof is a sequence of
statements that form an
argument.

There are two common

methods of proof:
1. Direct Proof
2. Indirect Proof
Direct Proof

In a direct proof
You assume the hypothesis p
Give a direct series
(sequence) of implications
using definitions, axioms,
theorems and rules of
inference
Show that the conclusion q
Direct proof
example

Show that the square of an even
number is an even number .

Rephrase: If n is even, then n2 is even.

Assume n is even

even numbers) – n2 = (2k)2 = 4k2 =

–Thus, n = 2k, for some k (definition of

2(2𝑘2 )
For students

The best way to improve proof
skills is PRACTICE.

Let them prove in Algebra

Ex. Prove that “If 8x – 5 = 19,
then x =3.”
The sum of two odd integers is even.
Indirect
Proof 
When we
use
an indirect
proof to
prove a
theory, we
follow
three
steps.

An indirect proof is also called a proof by

contradiction, because we are literally
Indirect proof example

If 𝒏𝟐 is an odd integer then n is an
odd integer.
Proof:
Assume the conclusion to be false. n is
an even integer
- n=2k for some integer k (definition
of even numbers)
- n2 = (2𝑘)2 = 4𝑘2 = 2(2 𝑘 2 )
- Since n2 is 2 times an integer, it is
 
Indirect Proof can be done
by showing that the
contrapositive is true.
Consider an implication: p→q
–It’s contrapositive is ¬q→¬p
–Thus, show that if ¬q is true,
then ¬p is true
- To perform an indirect
proof, do a direct proof on the
3.
Certainty 
There are three lines of inquiry to
address the problem of certainty in
mathematics.
1. Look at the historical development
of mathematics
2. Sketch the individual
cognitive development in
mathematics
3. Examine the foundations of
 D. PROBLEM -SOLVING
STRATEGIES

Ancient mathematicians who
were interested in problem-solving
are Euclid, Rene Descartes, and
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz.
One of the foremost recent
mathematicians to make a study of
problem solving was George Polya
(1887–1985). He was born in
Hungary and moved to the United
 POLYA’S STEPS IN
PROBLEM SOLVING

Understand
the
Problem
Devise a Plan

Carry out the Plan

Look
Back
 Devise Carry
Look
a out the
Back
Plan Plan


 Do you understand all the words used in stating the
problem?
 What are you asked to find or show?


 Can
Can you
you restate
think of the problem
a picture in your own
or diagram thatwords?
might help
you understand the problem?
 Is there enough information to enable you to find a
solution?
 Understand Carry
Look
the out the
Back
Problem Plan


Find the connection
between the data and
the unknown. You may be obliged to
consider auxiliary problems if an immediate
connection cannot be found. You should
obtain eventually a plan of the solution.
Polya mentions that there are many
reasonable ways to solve problems. The skill
at choosing an appropriate strategy is best
 Understand Carry
the
Problem
j out the
Plan
Look
Back

 Make a list of the  Try to solve a

A partial list of strategies is included:
known information. similar but simpler
 Make a list of problem.
information that is  Look for a pattern.
needed.  Write an equation. If
 Draw a diagram. necessary, define what
 Make an organized each variable
list that shows all the represents.
possibilities.  Perform an
 Make a table or a experiment.
4
6
Understand Devise Loo
the a k
Problem Plan Bac


k

■Work carefully.
■Keep an accurate and neat record
of all your attempts.
■Realize that some of your initial plans
will not work and that you may have
to devise another plan or modify your
existing plan.
Understand Devise Carry
the a out the
Problem Plan Plan


Once you have found a solution, check the
solution.

■Ensure that the solution is consistent

with the facts of the problem.
■Interpret the solution in the context
of the problem.
■Ask yourself whether there are
 Group Activity

 Discuss the 5 examples and give
comments/suggestions on how to
improve the strategies
 Apply Polya’s four steps in problem
solving

Activity sheets - STRATEGY in PROBLEM

SOLVING
.pdf
 

DEMONSTRATION
E. Mathematical
Problems
Involving
Patterns 
Predict the next term in a
sequence
nth-term Formula for a
Sequence
Word Problems which
involves numerical pattern
 TERMS OF A
SEQUENCE

An ordered list of numbers such as
5, 14, 27, 44, 65, ...
is called a sequence. The numbers in a sequence
that are separated by commas are the terms of the
sequence. In the above sequence, 5 is the first term,
14 is the second term, 27 is the third term, 44 is the
fourth term, and 65 is the fifth term. The three dots
“...” indicate that the sequence continues beyond
65, which is the last written term. It is customary to
use the subscript notation an to designate the nth
term of a sequence. That is,
Exercise:

Give problems involving sequence of
numbers and worded problems
involving numerical patterns
Ex. 1. Find the 10th term in the
sequence
3, 7, 11,
15,…
2. Mark saves money from his
allowance. Each day he saves 12 pesos
more than the previous day. If he started
 F. Recreational Problems
using Mathematics
Sudok

u
Magic Squares
A magic square of order n is an arrangement
of numbers in a square such that the sum of the n
numbers in each row, column, and diagonal is the
same number..
KenKen Puzzles
KenKen is an arithmetic-based logic puzzle that
was invented by the Japanese mathematics teacher
Tetsuya Miyamoto in 2004. The noun “ken” has
“knowledge” and “awareness” as synonyms. Hence,
KenKen translates as knowledge squared, or
awareness squared.
KenKen puzzles are similar to Sudoku puzzles,
but they also require you to perform arithmetic to
KenKen Puzzle


SOLUTIO
N
Solve a KenKen Puzzle

Distribute Activity
Sheets:

KENKEN PUZZLE.docx
 Activity:
Exploration

 Activity Sheet - TOWER of
HANOI.docx
 

QUI
Z
 

Problem Set #
1
References

 Mathematical Excursions (Ch. 1) by R.
Aufmann , et al.
 Mathematical Excursions Ch. 2) by R.
Aufmann et al.