Top Level View of Computer Function and
Interconnection
Program Concept
• Hardwired systems are inflexible
• General purpose hardware can do different tasks, given correct
control signals
• Instead of re-wiring, supply a new set of control signals
What is a program?
• A sequence of steps
• For each step, an arithmetic or logical operation is done
• For each operation, a different set of control signals is needed
Function of Control Unit
• For each operation a unique code is provided
• e.g. ADD, MOVE
• A hardware segment accepts the code and issues the control signals
• We have a computer!
Components
• The Control Unit and the Arithmetic and Logic Unit constitute the
Central Processing Unit
• Data and instructions need to get into the system and results out
• Input/output
• Temporary storage of code and results is needed
• Main memory
Computer Components:
Top Level View
Instruction Cycle
• Two steps:
• Fetch
• Execute
Fetch Cycle
• Program Counter (PC) holds address of next instruction to fetch
• Processor fetches instruction from memory location pointed to by PC
• Increment PC
• Unless told otherwise
• Instruction loaded into Instruction Register (IR)
• Processor interprets instruction and performs required actions
Execute Cycle
Processor-memory
data transfer between CPU and main memory
Processor I/O
Data transfer between CPU and I/O module
Data processing
Some arithmetic or logical operation on data
Control
Alteration of sequence of operations
e.g. jump
Combination of above
Example of Program Execution
Instruction Cycle State Diagram
Interrupts
Mechanism by which other modules (e.g. I/O) may interrupt normal
sequence of processing
Program
e.g. overflow, division by zero
Timer
Generated by internal processor timer
Used in pre-emptive multi-tasking
I/O
from I/O controller
Hardware failure
e.g. memory parity error
Program Flow Control
Interrupt Cycle
Added to instruction cycle
Processor checks for interrupt
Indicated by an interrupt signal
If no interrupt, fetch next instruction
If interrupt pending:
Suspend execution of current program
Save context
Set PC to start address of interrupt handler routine
Process interrupt
Restore context and continue interrupted program
Transfer of Control via Interrupts
Instruction Cycle with Interrupts
Program Timing
Short I/O Wait:
Program Timing
Long I/O Wait:
Instruction Cycle (with Interrupts) -
State Diagram
Multiple Interrupts
Disable interrupts
Processor will ignore further interrupts whilst processing one interrupt
Interrupts remain pending and are checked after first interrupt has been
processed
Interrupts handled in sequence as they occur
Define priorities
Low priority interrupts can be interrupted by higher priority interrupts
When higher priority interrupt has been processed, processor returns to
previous interrupt
Multiple Interrupts - Sequential
Multiple Interrupts – Nested
Time Sequence of Multiple
Interrupts
Connecting
• All the units must be connected
• Different type of connection for different type of unit
• Memory
• Input/Output
• CPU
Computer Modules
Memory Connection
• Receives and sends data
• Receives addresses (of locations)
• Receives control signals
• Read
• Write
• Timing
Input/Output Connection(1)
• Similar to memory from computer’s viewpoint
• Output
• Receive data from computer
• Send data to peripheral
• Input
• Receive data from peripheral
• Send data to computer
Input/Output Connection(2)
• Receive control signals from computer
• Send control signals to peripherals
• e.g. spin disk
• Receive addresses from computer
• e.g. port number to identify peripheral
• Send interrupt signals (control)
CPU Connection
• Reads instruction and data
• Writes out data (after processing)
• Sends control signals to other units
• Receives (& acts on) interrupts
Buses
• There are a number of possible interconnection systems
• Single and multiple BUS structures are most common
• e.g. Control/Address/Data bus (PC)
• e.g. Unibus (DEC-PDP)
What is a Bus?
• A communication pathway connecting two or more devices
• Usually broadcast
• Often grouped
• A number of channels in one bus
• e.g. 32 bit data bus is 32 separate single bit channels
• Power lines may not be shown
Data Bus
• Carries data
• Remember that there is no difference between “data” and “instruction” at
this level
• Width is a key determinant of performance
• 8, 16, 32, 64 bit
Address bus
• Identify the source or destination of data
• e.g. CPU needs to read an instruction (data) from a given location in
memory
• Bus width determines maximum memory capacity of system
• e.g. 8080 has 16 bit address bus giving 64k address space
Control Bus
• Control and timing information
• Memory read/write signal
• Interrupt request
• Clock signals
Bus Interconnection Scheme
