Group members

OTIM FREDRICK CRAWFORD : VU-BPC-2407-0170-DAY

KIYIMBA SOLOMON : VU-BPC-2407-0190-DAY

AKITWINE COLLINS : VU-BPC-2407-0318-DAY

APIO MERCY SALLY : VU-BPC-2407-0377-DAY

NANSUBUGA CAROL : VU-BPC-2407-0357-DAY

NATWIJUKA BRAISE : VU-BPC-2407-2318-DAY

 QUESTIONS
21. Atomic Structure and the Periodic Table
• Describe the structure of the atom (nucleus, electrons, isotopes).
• Explain the quantum mechanical model of the atom and the four quantum numbers.
• Discuss the electronic configuration of elements and the Aufbau principle, Pauli exclusion
principle,
and Hund's rule.
• Explain the periodic trends in atomic and ionic radii, ionization energy, electron affinity, and
electronegativity.
22. Periodic Properties of Elements
• Discuss the classification of elements into metals, non-metals, and metalloids.
• Explain the trends in chemical reactivity across a period and down a group.
• Discuss the diagonal relationship in the periodic
 Contents based on
-Atomic structures and periodic table
-historical development of periodic table
-the modern periodic table
-periodicity of atomic properties in the periodic table
ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND THE PERIODIC
TABLE

The structure of the atom(nucleus, electrons, isotopes)

Historical development of the atomic theory
It was the Greek philosophers Democritus and Leucippus who first considered the idea that matter is made up of particles in about 400BC. This was later supported by
Boyle and Newton. The idea was however not accepted because there was no experimental evidence for it.
In 1808, a Manchester school teacher, John Dalton restated and extended the older concepts. He gathered experimental evidence with which people were convinced.
In his Atomic Theory, Dalton said that “matter is made up of atoms”. Dalton, however never dreamt that anyone would be able to see an atom.
Modern instruments like X-ray diffraction and advanced microscopes have provided direct evidence for existence of atoms
Modern theory of the atom
(a) John Dalton’s atomic theory
The main points in Dalton's Atomic theory can be summarized as follows;
 All matter is made up of tiny particles called atoms.
 The atoms are chemically indivisible, indestructible and cannot be created.
 All the atoms of any one element are identical i.e. they have the same mass, same volume and the same chemical properties.
 Atoms of different elements have different mass, volume and chemical properties.
 Chemical combination occurs between elements by atoms joining in small whole numbers to form a small group of atoms chemically combined together. Dalton
called such a group “a compound atom”. It is now called a molecule.
By using Dalton's theory, we can clearly understand that;
When a reaction occurs in a closed vessel, all the atoms present before the reaction are still present after the reaction. They just merely become rearranged. Since the
masses of the atoms are constant, the total masses of the substances before and after the reaction should be the same.
Point of thought;
What can make us disagree with Dalton on the question whether atoms can be created or destroyed or split?
The J.J Thomson model of an
atom
Although John Dalton had thought that the atom could not be broken down into anything simpler, physicists further investigated whether atoms could be made of
smaller particles.
In 1895, Crookes, through his experiments on the discharge of electricity through gases at low pressure, he discovered that a beam of rays was given off by the
cathode (the negative electrode). He called them cathode rays. He also showed that cathode rays behave like negatively charged particles.
In 1897, Sir Joseph John Thomson, as a result of experimental work still on the conduction of electricity through gases at low pressure, measured the velocity of
cathode rays and the value of charge to mass ratio of the cathode rays. He obtained the same value of ⁄ regardless of which gas he used.
• J.J. Thomson therefore deduced that negatively charged particles were present in all matter.
• The negatively charged particles were named electrons and were recognized as particles of which an electric current is composed
• He described an atom as a sphere of positive electricity in which negative electrons are embedded
Point of thought; What is the main difference between this J.J.Thomson’s model and Dalton’s model?
J.J. Thomson's atomic model is popularly known as the plum pudding model. However, it had to be abandoned in 1911 on both theoretical and experimental grounds
in favor of Rutherford's atomic model.
Ernest Rutherford’s atomic
model
In 1909, Rutherford and colleagues found out that when particles from a Radium
source were directed to a very thin sheet of gold or platinum foil;
- The particles penetrated the gold foil
-A great majority of the particles passed through the foil without change in direction.
- A small fraction (about 1 in 20,000) of the particles were scattered deflected through large angles( as high as or more) Scattered particles Undeflected particle
Nucleus
To explain the above facts; Rutherford deduced that;
-Since particles are positively charged, the few deflections that occurred were because the protons of the atom are collected in a heavy, small positively charged
central nucleus which makes up just a tiny fraction of the atom.
-Since most of the particles passed through the gold foil undeflected, most of the atom is empty space and the electrons rotate in this space around the nucleus in the
in the same way planets rotate around the sun
The analysis led Rutherford to propose a model in which an atom consists of a very small positively charged nucleus, in which most of the mass of the atom is
concentrated, surrounded by negatively charged electrons, so that the atom is electrically neutral.
The fundamental particles and structures of the atom

Fundamental particles of the atom

The fundamental particles of an atom include the; protons, neutrons and electrons.
The structure of an atom
An atom is spherical in shape and has a small region in the center called the nucleus. The atom contains protons and neutrons, and electrons as fundamental particles.
The protons and neutrons are concentrated in a very small nucleus in the center of the atom while the electrons are all outside the nucleus in the energy levels and
are
constantly rotating around the nucleus.
The number of electrons in the energy levels (negative charges) is equal to the number of all protons in the nucleus (positive charges) hence an atom is neutral.
So, the energy levels are named 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and so on or K, L, M, N and so on from the energy level closest to the nucleus outwards.
 Electrons
Electrons are negatively charged particles surrounding the nucleus.
The electrons are carried in circular paths known as energy levels that
surround the Nucleus
An electron has a mass of ⁄ of a proton, therefore its mass is said to be
negligible; it carries a charge of negative one (-1).
The chemical reactions of an element are determined by the number of
electrons (which
is equal to the number of protons in the nucleus)
Protons and neutrons
2. Protons
Protons are positively charged fundamental particles which are present in all
atomic
nuclei.
Protons have a unit mass of one (1) and each proton carries a charge of positive
one (+1).
3. Neutrons
Neutrons are uncharged fundamental particles in the nuclei of atoms, with the
exception
of hydrogen.
Neutrons also have unit mass of one and carry no charge (they are neutral).
The nucleus
The nucleus of an atom consists of protons (positively charged) and neutrons (which have
no charge)
Protons and neutrons are collectively called nucleons.
The sum of the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom is called nucleon number or mass
number (A).
The number of protons in the nucleus of an element is called the Proton number or atomic number (Z).
The full symbol of an atom of an element is given notation where;
X is the symbol of the element
Y is the nucleon number or mass number
Z is the proton number or atomic number
The atomic number provides some information about an element which may include;
(i) The position of an element in the Periodic Table
(ii) The number of protons present in the nucleus of an atom
(iii) The total number of electrons present in the neutral atom
 Isotopes
Isotopic notation

• Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but different number of neutrons.

• Isotopes therefore have different mass numbers.

• Isotopy is the existence of atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but different
number of neutrons.

• Isotopes of the same element have very similar chemical properties because they have the same electronic
configuration, but differ slightly in their physical properties. Therefore this variation affects the atomic mass
but not the chemical properties.

• An unstable isotope is termed a radioactive isotope or radioisotope.

 The quantum mechanical mode of the atom and the four quatum numbers .
The concept of quantum numbers
The term quantum number is used to label the various energy levels. A set of four quantum numbers are used to describe completely the movement and trajectories
of each electron within an atom. Each electron in an atom has a unique set of quantum numbers and no two electrons can share the same combination of the four
quantum numbers.
Quantum numbers are important in determining the electronic configuration of an atom and the location of the electrons in the atom. They are also used to
understand other characteristics of atoms such as ionisation energy and atomic radius.
Quantum numbers are a set of four integers which are necessary to locate the energy level or position of an electron and to specify the size, shape and orientation of
orbital.
In atoms, there are a total of four quantum numbers. These include;
1. The Principal quantum number
This specifies the energy level of an electron and its distance from the nucleus. The first orbital nearest to the nucleus has principal quantum number, and is also
called the ground state. The second principal quantum number, and is called the excited state and so on. As increases, the size of the orbit increases and the electron
is faraway from the nucleus. An increase in also means that the electron has higher energy and is therefore less bound to the nucleus. Energy levels closer to the
nucleus have lower energy. All the orbitals having the same value of are said to be in the same level. The total number of electrons that can occupy any energy level is
given by where principal quantum number
2. The Azimuthal quantum number or angular momentum quantum number
Specifies the orbital shape (s, p, d, f).
3. The magnetic quantum number
It Indicates the orientation of the orbital in space.
4. The electron spin quantum number
It represents the electron's intrinsic spin.
.
The Aufbau principle, Pauli Exclusion principle, Hund’s rule

The Aufbau principle

“Aufbau” is a German word meaning „building up‟. Aufbau principle is a principle that gives the order in which orbitals are filled in successive elements in the periodic
table.
It states that electrons enter orbitals of lowest energy first. The electrons are added to atomic orbitals starting with the lowest energy orbitals and building up to
higher energy orbitals in the order 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, etc.
Pauli Exclusion principle
It states that all the electrons in any atom must be distinguishable or that no two electrons in a single atom can have all their quantum numbers alike. It follows that if
two electrons in an atom have the same values of n, l and m, they must have different values of s. Their spins must be opposed. One must spin up and the other spins
down.
Hund’s rule
It is also called Hund‟s Multiplicity Rule. According to the rule, when electrons occupy orbitals of equal energy, they do not pair up in an orbital until all the other
orbitals in the sub energy level have been occupied by a single electron.
Electronic configuration of
atoms
• The Hund‟s rule, Pauli Exclusion principle and the Aufbau principle
are all applied in writing of electronic configurations of atoms.
• The notation is used and the subenergy levels contain a maximum
number of electrons as shown. The atomic number is used to write
the configuration.
• Below are the first 20 elements with their electronic configurations.
H+, H-, C4-, Na, Na+, Me3+, P5-, Cl-,Ca2+, V5+, Cr3+, Mn2+, Fe2+, Co2+,
Cu+, Cu2+, Br-
Periodic table
 Table Periodic
The Modern Periodic Table
In the modern Periodic Table, elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic numbers
instead of atomic mass. Atomic numbers increase from left to right and from top to bottom in the
table.
The modern Periodic Table has more elements than Mendeleef‟s table because many elements
have been discovered since his time. The elements can be classified in three classes; metals,
metalloids and non-metals.
In the modern Periodic Table, each element is represented by its chemical symbol, atomic
mass and mass number. The rows in the table are called Periods and the columns are the groups.
The table has a total of 18 groups and 7 periods.
The first period has only 2 elements.
The second and third periods have 8 elements each.
The fourth and fifth have 18 elements each.
The sixth has 32 elements.
The seventh period has 32 elements including Nihonium-113, Moscovium-115, Tennesine-117
and Oganeson-118. These new elements were approved in 2015 by IUPAC and added to the table
to complete the seventh period to 32 elements.
There is a separate group of elements at the bottom of the table. It consists of 14 elements of the
sixth period called the lanthanides and 14 elements of the seventh period called the actinides.
Elements in the same group have similar chemical properties and the same outermost
configuration.
Classification of elements based on the electronic configuration as s, p, d and f blocks.
• The Periodic Table is divided into four main blocks; these blocks are s-block, p-block, d-block and f-block .T hey are placed in the left hand block of
the table.
The s-block
• contains the elements whose outermost electrons occupy the s sub-energy level. The s-block consists of two groups of elements; IA whose
electronic configuration ends with 1+ ,and IIA whose electronic configuration ends with 2+.
p-block elements
• These occupy the right hand block of table. The p-block contains the elements whose outermost electrons occupy the p sub-energy level except
helium. All elements placed in groups IIIB, IVB, VB, VIB, VIIB and O are p-block elements.
d-block elements
• They occupy the middle block of the table. The d-block contains the elements with the outermost electrons in the d sub-energy level after the s
sub-energy level is filled. The d-block elements are classified according to the outer energy sub-energy level and the period number into three
series which are:
1. The first transition series:
• It includes the elements in which the 3d sub-energy level is filled successively. It lies in the fourth period and includes the elements from scandium (
21Sc ) to zinc ( 30Zn ) .
2. The second transition series:
• It includes the elements in which the 4d sub-energy level is filled successively. It lies in the fifth period and includes the elements from yttrium (39Y)
to cadmium ( 48Cd ) .
3. The third transition series:
• It includes the elements in which the 5d sub-energy level is filled successively. It lies in the sixth period and includes the elements from lanthanum (
57La ) to mercury ( 80Hg ) , excluding the lanthanides.
f-block elements
• They are separated down the Periodic table , to avoid being a very wide table , In which the f sub-energy level is filled successively , The f-block is
divided into 2 series, each with 14 elements. These are:
1. The lanthanides
• These are in the sixth period, in which the 4f sub-energy level is filled successively.
• The elements of this series are quite similar in behaviour and very difficult to be separated as the outermost energy level for all of them is 6s² .
2. The actinides
• These are placed in seventh period, in which the 5f sub-energy level is filled successively. All the elements of this series are radioactive and their
nuclei are
The periodic trends in in the atomic and ironic radius, ionization energy, electron affinity,
electronegativity

Periodicity of atomic properties in the Periodic Table

The common atomic properties include;

-Atomic radius
-Ionisation energy
-Electron affinity
-Electronegativity
-Electropositivity
-Metallic character
-Standard electrode potential

The factors affecting atomic properties of elements include;

-Nuclear charge
-Shielding effect/ screening effect
-Electronic configuration
-Atomic radius.
Continuation of factors affecting atomic properties
1. Nuclear charge
This is simply the total number of positive charges in the nucleus of an atom. It is an equivalent to the number of protons.
2. Shielding effect/ screening effect This is the repulsion of the outermost electrons by those in the innermost sub energy levels from nuclear attraction. Electrons in
an atom shield each other from the pull of the nucleus. Shielding effect describes the decrease in attraction between an electron and the nucleus in any atom with
more than one energy level. The greater the number of energy levels, the greater the shielding effect.
3. Effective nuclear charge( )
This is the net positive charge experienced by an electron in an atom. Effective nuclear charge is given by the equation;
Using the formula, it can be interpreted that if the nuclear charge is high and the
screening effect is low, then effective nuclear charge increases. When the screening effect is high and nuclear charge is low, the effective nuclear charge reduces.
4. Atomic and Ionic radius
Atomic radius is half the internuclear distance between two atoms in a covalently bonded diatomic molecule with similar atoms or in a metallic bond.
The variation in atomic radius down a group or across a period is determined by the factors;
1. Nuclear charge
The higher the nuclear charge, the more strongly are the outermost electrons attracted closer to the nucleus, reducing the atomic radius. The lower the nuclear
charge, the weaker the attraction of the outer most electrons to the nucleus hence the increasing the atomic radius.
2. Screening effect.
The greater the screening effect, the stronger the repulsion of the outermost electrons from the nuclear attraction. The electrons are thus far and weakly attracted to
the nucleus, increasing the atomic radius. The lower the screening effect, the lower the repulsion of the outermost electrons from the nuclear attraction. The
electrons are thus nearer and strongly attracted to the nucleus, reducing the atomic radius
Atomic radius
Generally atomic radii decrease across a period and increase down a group due to the increased nuclear charge and shielding effect.

The table below shows variation in atomic and ionic radii across Period
element Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
Atomic 0.156 0.136 0.125 0.117 0.110 0.104 0.099
radius
Ionic 0.095 0.065 0.054 0.212 0.184 0.181
radius
(a) State and explain the trend in atomic radius of the elements

Atomic radius decreases from sodium to chlorine. This is because from sodium to chlorine, nuclear charge increases because a proton is added to nucleus
from element to element. Screening effect almost remains constant, because electrons are added to the same energy level. Effective nuclear charge
increases, and outer most electrons get closer and more strongly attracted than repelled by the nucleus.

(a) Explain why:

(i) the ionic radii of Na+, Mg2+ and Al3+ are smaller than those of the corresponding atoms.

The ions are formed by losing electrons. When the electrons are lost, the number of protons becomes greater than the number of remaining electrons.
Screening effect is reduced. Effective nuclear charge increases. The remaining electrons become strongly attracted by the nucleus than they are repelled.

(ii) the ionic radii of P3-,S2-, and Cl2- are larger than those of the corresponding atoms
The ions are formed by gaining electrons. When the electrons are gained, the number of electrons becomes greater than the number of existing protons.
Screening effect increases. Effective nuclear charge reduces. The electrons become more strongly repelled by the nucleus than they are attracted.

(b) The ions and have the same electronic configuration, yet they have different ionic radii. Suggest a reason for this.

The ions are formed by losing electrons, reducing the screening effect. The number of protons however remains unchanged. The effective nuclear charge
therefore increases in the order Na+<Mg2+<Al3+. since proton number increases in the same order. The ionic radius therefore decreases in the order
Ionisation energy
Ionisation energy is the minimum amount of energy required to remove an electron from a gaseous atom to form a charged gaseous ion.
Ionisation energy can be first, second or third,…
First ionisation energy is the minimum amount of energy required to remove an electron from a gaseous atom to form a unipositively charged gaseous ion.
I0nisation energy Increases across a period and decrease down a group due to stronger nuclear attraction to outer electrons.
The variation in first ionisation energy down a group or across a period is determined by the factors;
1. Nuclear charge
The higher the nuclear charge, the higher the first ionisation energy because the outermost electron is strongly attracted by the nucleus, requiring a high amount of
energy to be removed. The lower the nuclear charge, the lower the first ionisation energy because the outermost electron is weakly attracted by the nucleus, requiring
a low amount of energy to be removed.
2. Screening effect
The higher the screening effect, the lower the first ionisation energy because the outermost electron is more strongly repelled than it is attracted by the nucleus,
requiring a low amount of energy to be removed. The lower the screening effect, the higher the first ionisation energy because the outermost electron is more
strongly attracted by the nucleus than it is repelled, requiring a high amount of energy to be removed.
3. Atomic radius
The larger the atomic radius, the lower the first ionisation energy because the outermost electron is far and weakly attracted by the nucleus, requiring a low amount
of energy to be removed. The smaller the atomic radius, the higher the first ionisation energy because the outermost electron is nearer and strongly attracted by the
nucleus requiring a higher amount of energy to be removed.
4. Electronic configuration/ electronic structure
Atoms with outermost sub energy levels half-filled or completely filled with electrons are thermodynamically stable and require abnormally higher amount of energy
to remove an electron. Atoms whose outermost sub energy levels are neither half-filled nor completely filled with electrons are unstable and require a low amount of
energy to remove an electron.
Continuation of ionization energy
5. Penetrating power of valence electrons
If an electron is to be removed from a sub energy level which is more penetrating, the first ionisation energy is higher. If the electron is in a less penetrating sub energy
level, the ionisation energy is lower. Penetrating power increases in the order; .
Variation in ionisation energy in Periods and groups
1. The table below shows the first ionization energies of the elements in Period 2 of the
Periodic Table. Corresponding equation

element Li Be C N O F Ne
First ionization 520 899 800 1086 1402 1314 1681
energy(kjmol-1)

(a) State and explain the general trend in first ionisation energy
(b) Briefly explain why;
(i) Beryllium has an abnormally higher value than boron
(ii) Oxygen has an abnormally lower value than nitrogen
(iii) the ionisation energy of neon is very high
(a) First ionization energy generally increases from lithium to neon.
This is because from lithium to neon, nuclear charge increases because a proton is added to nucleus from element to element. Screening effect almost remains
constant,because electrons are added to the same energy level. Effective nuclear charge increases, atomic radius reduces and outer most electron is closer and more
strongly attracted than repelled by the nucleus requiring a high amount of energy to be removed.
continuation

(b)
(i)
For Beryllium, an electron is removed from a completely filled 2s-sub energy level which is
thermodynamically stable. Higher amount of energy is required to remove the electron
For Boron, an electron is removed from a 2p-sub energy level which has only one electron hence
thermodynamically unstable. Lower amount of energy is required to
remove the electron
(ii)
For oxygen, the electron is removed from a 2p-sub energy level which has four electrons hence
thermodynamically unstable. Lower amount of energy is required to remove the electron.
For nitrogen, an electron is removed from a half filled 2p-sub energy level which is
thermodynamically stable. Higher amount of energy is required to remove the electron
(iii)
For neon, an electron is removed from a completely filled 2p-sub energy level which is
thermdynamically stable. High amount of energy is required to remove the electron
Electron affinity
When an electron is gained by an atom, energy is given out. This energy is called first electron affinity.
First electron affinity is the energy given out when one mole of electrons combines with one mole of gaseous atoms to form one mole of uninegatively charged
gaseous ions
or
The energy given out when an electron is added to a gaseous atom to form a uninegatively charged gaseous ion
First electron affinity is an exothermic process (energy is given out)
The uninegatively charged gaseous ion can gain one more electron to form a negatively charged ion. This is called second electron affinity and is an endothermic
process (energy is absorbed)
1-Explain why the first electron affinity of oxygen is negative and the second electron affinity of oxygen is positive
First electron affinity of oxygen is negative because heat is given out when an electron is added to neutral gaseous oxygen atom to form uninegatively charged
gaseous oxygen atom. This incoming electron experiences a greater attraction by the nucleus than it is repelled. There is however repulsion when an electron is being
added to the negatively charged gaseous ion. Energy must be absorbed to add this electron such that the repulsion is overcome. This makes the second electron
affinity positive.
Continuation electron affinity
The variation in first electron affinity down a group or across a period is determined by the factors;
1. Nuclear charge
The higher the nuclear charge, the higher the first electron affinity because the incoming electron is strongly attracted than it is repelled by the nucleus, giving off a
high amount of energy. The lower the nuclear charge, the lower the first electron affinity because the incoming electron is weakly attracted by the nucleus, giving off a
low amount of energy.
2. Screening effect
The higher the screening effect, the lower the first electron affinity because the incoming electron is strongly repelled than it is attracted by the nucleus, giving off a
low amount of energy. The lower the screening effect, the higher the first electron affinity because the incoming electron is more strongly attracted by the nucleus
than it is repelled, giving offa high amount of energy.
3. Atomic radius
The larger the atomic radius, the lower the first electron affinity because the incoming electron is far and more strongly repelled than it is attracted by the nucleus,
giving off alow amount of energy. The smaller the atomic radius, the higher the first electron affinity because the incoming electron is nearer and more strongly
attracted by the nucleus than it is repelled giving off a higher amount of energy.
4. Electronic configuration
Atoms with outermost sub energy levels half-filled or completely filled with electrons are thermodynamically stable and resist addition of an incoming electron. Energy
must be absorbed to add this electron because it experiences greater repulsion than attraction. This results into a low amount of energy of first electron affinity.
Atoms whose outermost subenergy levels are neither half-filled nor completely filled with electrons are unstable. The incoming electron experiences more attraction
than repulsion, giving off a higher amount
Continuation of electron affinity
2. The table below shows the variation in the first electron affinity of the elements in Period 3 of the Periodic Table.
element Na Mg Al Si P S Ar
First electron -21 +67 -44 -135 -72 -200 0
affinity

(b) State and explain the general trend in first electron affinity from sodium to argon
From sodium to argon, nuclear charge increases because a proton is added to nucleus from element to element. Screening effect almost remains constant, because
electrons are added to the same energy level. Effective nuclear charge increases, atomic radius reduces. The attraction for the incoming electron increases thus
increasing the electron affinity. The first electron affinity of magnesium is lower than the rest.
For magnesium, the electron is added to a completely filled 3s-sub energy level which is thermodynamically stable. The incoming electron experiences greater
repulsion by the existing electrons than nuclear attraction. Energy must therefore be absorbed to add the incoming electron. The first electron affinity is therefore
endothermic.
(ii) the first electron affinity of aluminum is higher than that of magnesium
For aluminum, the electron is added to the 3p-sub energy level which has one electron and thermodynamically unstable. The incoming electron experiences more
attraction by the nucleus than repulsion, hence giving off a higher amount of energy.
For magnesium, the electron is added to a completely filled 3s-sub energy level which is thermodynamically stable. The incoming electron experiences greater
repulsion by the existing electrons than nuclear attraction, hence giving off a lower amount of energy.
(iii) the first electron affinity of phosphorus is lower than that of Sulphur.
For phosphorus, the electron is added to a half filled 3p-sub energy level which is thermodynamically stable. The incoming electron experiences more repulsion than
attraction by the nucleus.
For Sulphur, the incoming electron is added to a 3p-sub energy level which has four electrons, thermodynamically unstable. The incoming electron experiences more
nuclear attraction than repulsion by the existing electrons.
Electronegativity
The tendency of an atom to attract bonding electrons towards itself in a covalent bond. Electronegativity is very important factor in determining the degree of polarity
of any covalent bond. The greater the difference between the electronegativities of two atoms,
the greater the ionic character. In hydrogen fluoride, the electron density of the bonding electrons lies more towards the fluorine atom than the hydrogen atom
because fluorine is more electronegative than hydrogen. This makes fluorine gain a partial negative charge and hydrogen a partial positive charge, making the
hydrogen fluorine bond polar.
The variation in electronegativity down a group or across a period is determined by the
factors;
1. Nuclear charge
The higher the nuclear charge, the higher the electronegativity because the bonding electrons are strongly attracted by the nucleus. The lower the nuclear charge, the
lower the electronegativity because the bonding electrons are weakly attracted by the nucleus.
2. Screening effect
The higher the screening effect, the lower the electronegativity because the bonding electrons are strongly repelled. The lower the screening effect, the higher the
electronegativity because the bonding electrons are less shielded from the nuclear attraction.
3. Atomic radius
The larger the atomic radius, the lower the electronegativity because the bonding electrons are far and weakly attracted by the nucleus. The smaller the atomic radius,
the higher the electronegativity because the bonding electrons are nearer and strongly attracted by the nucleus.
Continuation of electronegativity
• 1. The table below shows the electronegativity values of the elements in
Period 3 of the Periodic Table.
element Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
electronegativity 1.0 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.5 3.0

• State and explain the trend in electronegativity values of the elements

• Electronegativity increases from sodium to chlorine.
• This is because from sodium to chlorine, nuclear charge increases because a
proton is added to nucleus from element to element.
• Screening effect almost remains constant,because electrons are added to
the same energy level.
• Effective nuclear charge increases, atomic radius reduces and the bonding
electrons experience a greater nuclear attraction.
Classification of elements into metals, non metals and metalloids

Metals
Metalloids
Non-metals

The elements in the Modern Periodic table can be classified as metals, metalloids or non-metals. Most of the elements in
the table are metals. In the periodic table, there is a change from metallic to non-metallic properties across the table, and
an increase in metallic properties down a group. Consequently there is a diagonal nearer the center of the table in which
there is a borderline between metals and non-metals, and
the metalloids are the borderline cases.

The metals are good conductors of heat and electricity have a shiny lustre, malleable and ductile, usually have high melting
points and high densities.

The non-metals are poor thermal conductors, good heat insulators, and are neither malleable nor ductile.

Metalloids are a class of chemical elements that are intermediate in properties between metals and non-metals. Elements
such as arsenic, germanium, and tellurium aresemiconductors and their conductivity increases as their temperature
increases.
Explanation of trends in chemical reactivity and across and down the
group

• Across a Period: Electronegativity increases, making it more difficult for

metals to lose electrons and non-metals to gain electrons, resulting in
decreased reactivity of metals and increased reactivity of non-metals.
• Down a Group: Atomic radius increases, and ionization energy decreases,
making metals more reactive and non-metals less reactive.
Diagonal Relationship

• The similarities in properties between elements diagonally across the

periodic table, such as the reactivity of Boron (Group 13) and
Aluminum (Group 13) or that of Lithium (Group 1) and Magnesium
(Group 2).
• This is due to the similar atomic radii, effective nuclear charges, and
electron configurations of these elements, which lead to analogous
chemical properties.