Noida Institute of Engineering and Technology, Greater

Noida Institute of Engineering and Technology, Greater Noida

Noida
Operating Systems
BCSE0403A
Unit: 1

Operating System

B Tech 4th Sem

Ms. Rashmi Bhardwaj
Assistant Professor
Department of CSE

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05/17/2025
 Noida Institute of Engineering and Technology, Greater
Noida Institute of Engineering and Technology, Greater Noida
Noida

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 Noida Institute of Engineering and Technology, Greater
Syllabus Of Course
Noida

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 Noida Institute of Engineering and Technology, Greater
Syllabus Of Course
Noida

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 Noida Institute of Engineering and Technology, Greater
Syllabus Of Course
Noida

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 Noida Institute of Engineering
UNIT-I and&Technology,
Fundamentals Greater Noida
Shell scripting

UNIT-I Fundamentals & Shell scripting

• Module 1.1: (Fundamentals of Operating Systems)

Overview of Operating Systems, Operating system architecture, Types of
Operating System: Batch OS, Multiprogramming OS, Multitasking OS,
Multiprocessor OS, Real time OS, System call and kernel.
• Module 1.2: (Shell Scripting in Linux)
Introduction to Linux Operating System, Basic Command Line Interface (CLI)
Operations in Linux, Shell Scripting Basics: Variables, Control Structures,
Functions.

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 Branch wise Applications

• Airlines reservation system.

• Air traffic control system.
• Systems that provide immediate updating.
• Used in any system that provides up to date and minute
information on stock prices.
• Defense application systems like RADAR.
• Networked Multimedia Systems.
• Command Control Systems.

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 Course Objectives

• To learn the fundamentals of Operating Systems.

• To understand what a process is and how processes are synchronized and scheduled.
• To understand different approaches to memory management.
• Students should be able to use system calls for managing processes, memory and the
file system.
• To understand the structure and organization of the file system.

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 Course Outcomes
Course Outcome

At the end of semester, students will be able to

CO1: Understand various operating systems architecture with utilizing the command line
interface (CLI) within a Linux environment.
CO2: Understand and implement the various CPU scheduling algorithms.
CO3: Analyse deadlock, concurrency, and synchronization into the system architecture.
CO4: Identify and implement the memory management techniques and algorithms.
CO5: Analyse file management system and implement distributed and virtual machine
configurations on modern operating systems.

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 COsCOs
andandPOs
POsMapping
Mapping

OPERATING SYSTEM (BCSE0403A )

CODE PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12

BCSE0403A .1 3 3 2 2 1 2 - 2 3 2 2 3

BCSE0403A .2 3 3 3 2 2 3 2 2 3 - 1 3

BCSE0403A .3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 1 3

BCSE0403A.4 3 2 2 3 1 2 2 - 2 - 2 3

BCSE0403A.5 3 1 2 2 2 2 - - 2 2 2 3

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 Program Specific Outcomes

On successful completion of B. Tech. (CSE.) Program, the graduates will be able to:

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 COs
COsand
andPSOs
PSOsMapping
Mapping

Program Specific Outcomes

Course
Outcomes PSO1 PSO2 PSO3 PSO4

BCSE0403A.1 2 1 2 2
BCSE0403A.2 2 2 1 2
BCSE0403A.3 2 3 3 2
BCSE0403A.4 2 2 1 2
BCSE0403A.5 2 2 2 2

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 Program Educational Objectives (PEOs)

PEO’S of the B. Tech. in Computer Science and Engineering are: The graduates will be able:
 PEO 1: To have an excellent scientific and engineering breadth so as to comprehend, analyze, design and provide
sustainable solutions for real-life problems using state-of-the-art technologies.
 PEO 2: To have a successful career in industries, to pursue higher studies or to support entrepreneurial endeavors
and to face global challenges.
 PEO 3: To have an effective communication skill, professional attitude, ethical values and a desire to learn
specific knowledge in emerging trends, technologies for research, innovation and product development and
contribution to society.
 PEO 4: To have life-long learning for up-skilling and re-skilling for successful professional career as engineer,
scientist, entrepreneur, and bureaucrat for betterment of the society.

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 Faculty wise Result Analysis

Semester & Section Subject Code Result

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Number:1
 Brief Introduction about the subject with video

An operating system acts as an intermediary between the user of a computer and

computer hardware. The purpose of an operating system is to provide an
environment in which a user can execute programs conveniently and efficiently
YouTube/other Video Links
• CS162 Lecture 1: What is an Operating System? (youtube.com)
• Operating System #01 Introduction to OS, its Roles & Types (youtube.com)
• Operating System #14 What is an Interrupt? Types of Interrupts - YouTube
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=akU1Ji8Vzdk&list=PLbMVogVj5nJRa3VKt_ey
ZdJ_DitCz1cvQ
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rRGCGZ6OHw8&list=PLbMVogVj5nJRa3VKt
_eyZdJ_DitCz1cvQ&index=2
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Number:1
 Prerequisite and Recap

• Basic knowledge of computer fundamentals.

• Basic knowledge of computer organization.
• Memory hierarchy
• Cache Organization
• Interrupt
• Registers
• Associative memory

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 Topic mapping with CO

Topic CO
Overview of Operating Systems CO1
Types of operating System CO1
Operating system architecture CO1
System call and kernel CO1
Introduction to Linux Operating System CO1
Basic Command Line Interface (CLI) CO1
Operations in Linux
Shell Scripting Basics CO1

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 Topic Objectives

Topic Objective
Students will be able to
Introduction of Operating System Understand the basics of Operating System, its features characteristics
and functions

Types of operating System Understand the different types of operating System

Operating system architecture Understand the components and internal structure of operating system
System call and kernel Understand the functionality of kernel that manages system resources,
such as the CPU, memory, and devices, ensuring everything works
together smoothly and efficiently.
Introduction to Linux Operating System Understand the high-level concepts that guide the Linux
operating system development.
Basic Command Line Interface (CLI) Operations in Understand the Use basic Linux shell commands to begin using
Linux and learning about the command-line interface (CLI)
Shell Scripting Basics Understand the basics of Shell Scripting System, its features
characteristics and functions

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 Unit-1 Content

1. Introduction
2. Functions of Operating System
3. Characteristics of Operating System
4. Operating system architecture
5. Types of Operating Systems
5.1 Simple Batch Systems
5.2 Multiprogramming Batched Systems
5.3 Multi-tasking Systems
5.4 Multi-Processor Systems
5.5 Real time Systems
6. System call and kernel.
7. Introduction to Linux Operating System
8. Basic Command Line Interface (CLI) Operations in Linux
9. Shell Scripting Basics: Variables, Control Structures, Functions.

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 Introduction of Operating System

• A program that acts as an intermediary between a user of a computer and the

computer hardware.
• An operating system is a program that controls the execution of application programs
and acts as an interface between the user of a computer and the computer hardware.

• Operating system goals:

 Execute user programs and make solving user problems easier.
 Make the computer system convenient to use.
 Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner.

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 Introduction ofofOperating
Introduction System
Operating System

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 Objectives of Operating System

• Convenience – An operating system improves the use of a machine. Operating systems enable users
to get started on the things they wish to complete quickly without having to cope with the stress of
first configuring the system.
• Efficiency – An operating system enables the efficient use of resources. This is due to less time spent
configuring the system.
• Ability to evolve – An operating system should be designed in such a way that it allows for the
effective development, testing, and introduction of new features without interfering with service.
• Throughput: An OS should be constructed so that it can give maximum throughput(Number of
tasks per unit time).
• Management of system resources – It guarantees that resources are shared fairly among various
processes and users.

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 Need of Operating System

1. Interface between the user and the computer

An OS provides a very easy way to interact with the computer. It provides different features and GUI so that we can easily work on a computer. We have
to interact just by clicking the mouse or through the keyboard. Thus, we can say that an OS makes working very easy and efficient.
2. Booting
Booting is basically the process of starting the computer. When the CPU is first switched ON it has nothing inside the memory. So, to start the computer,
we load the operating system into the main memory. Therefore, loading the OS to the main memory to start the computer is booting. Hence, the OS helps to
start the computer when the power is switched ON.
3. Managing the input/output devices
The OS helps to operate the different input/output devices. The OS decides which program or process can use which device. Moreover, it decides the time
for usage. In addition to this, it controls the allocation and de allocation of devices.
4. Multitasking
The OS helps to run more than one application at a time on the computer. It plays an important role while multitasking. Since it manages memory and
other devices during multitasking. Therefore, it provides smooth multitasking on the system.
5. Platform for other application software
Users require different application programs to perform specific tasks on the system. The OS manages and controls these applications so that they can work
efficiently. In other words, it acts as an interface between the user and the applications.
Some other uses/need for operating system are:
6. Manages the memory
It helps in managing the main memory of the computer. Moreover, It allocates and de allocates memory to all the applications/tasks.
7. Manages the system files
It helps to manage files on the system. As we know, all the data on the system is in the form of files. It makes interaction with the files easy.
8. Provides Security
It keeps the system and applications safe through authorization. Thus, the OS provides security to the system.
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 Functions of Operating System

• Security – For security, modern operating systems employ a firewall. A firewall is a type of security system that
monitors all computer activity and blocks it if it detects a threat.
• Job Accounting – As the operating system keeps track of all the functions of a computer system. Hence, it makes a
record of all the activities taking place on the system. It has an account of all the information about the memory,
resources, errors, etc. Therefore, this information can be used as and when required.
• Control over system performance – The operating system will collect consumption statistics for various resources
and monitor performance indicators such as reaction time, which is the time between requesting a service and
receiving a response from the system.
• Error detecting aids – While a computer system is running, a variety of errors might occur. Error detection
guarantees that data is delivered reliably across susceptible networks. The operating system continuously monitors
the system to locate or recognize problems and protects the system from them.
• Coordination between other software and users – The operating system (OS) allows hardware components to be
coordinated and directs and allocates assemblers, interpreters, compilers, and other software to different users of
the computer system.
• Booting process – The process of starting or restarting a computer is referred to as Booting. Cold booting occurs
when a computer is totally turned off and then turned back on. Warm booting occurs when the computer is restarted.
The operating system (OS) is in charge of booting the computer.

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 Characteristics of Operating System

• Memory Management — It keeps tracks of primary memory i.e what part of it are in use by whom,
what part are not in use etc. Allocates the memory when the process or program request it.
• Processor Management — Allocate the processor(CPU) to a process. De allocate processor when
processor is no longer required.
• Device Management — Keep tracks of all devices. This is also called I/O controller. Decides which
process gets the device when and for how much time.
• File Management — Allocates the resources. De-allocates the resource. Decides who gets the
resources.
• Security — By means of passwords & similar other techniques, preventing unauthorized access to
programs & data.
• Error-detecting aids — Production of dumps, traces, error messages and other debugging and error-
detecting methods.
• Storage Management

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 Characteristics
CharacteristicsofofOperating System
Operating System

Memory Management:
• It is the management of the main or primary memory. Whatever program is executed, it has to be
present in the main memory. Main memory is a quick storage area that may be accessed directly by
the CPU. When the program execution is completed, the memory region is released and can be used
by other programs. Therefore, there can be more than one program present at a time. Hence, it is
required to manage the memory.
The operating system:
• Allocates and de allocates the memory.
• Keeps a record of which part of primary memory is used by whom and how much.
• Distributes the memory while multiprocessing.
• In multiprogramming, the operating system selects which processes acquire memory when and how
much memory they get.

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 Characteristics
CharacteristicsofofOperating System
Operating System

Processor Management:
• Every software that runs on a computer, whether in the background or in the frontend, is a process. Processor
management is an execution unit in which a program operates. The operating system determines the status of the
processor and processes, selects a job and its processor, allocates the processor to the process, and de-allocates
the processor after the process is completed.
• When more than one process runs on the system, the OS decides how and when a process will use the CPU.
Hence, the name is also CPU Scheduling.
The OS:
• Allocates and de allocates processor to the processes.
• Keeps record of CPU status.
Certain algorithms used for CPU scheduling are as follows:
• First Come First Serve (FCFS)
• Shortest Job First (SJF)
• Round-Robin Scheduling
• Priority-based scheduling etc.

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 Characteristics
CharacteristicsofofOperating System
Operating System

Device Management:
• An operating system regulates device connection using drivers. The processes may require devices for their use.
This management is done by the OS.
The OS:
• Allocates and de allocates devices to different processes.
• Keeps records of the devices.
• Decides which process can use which device for how much time.
File Management:
• The operating system manages resource allocation and de-allocation. It specifies which process receives the file and
for how long. It also keeps track of information, location, uses, status, and so on. These groupings of resources are
referred to as file systems. The files on a system are stored in different directories.
The OS:
• Keeps records of the status and locations of files.
• Allocates and de allocates resources.
• Decides who gets the resources.

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 Characteristics
CharacteristicsofofOperating System
Operating System

Storage Management:
• Storage management is a procedure that allows users to maximize the utilization of storage devices
while also protecting data integrity on whatever media on which it lives. Network virtualization,
replication, security, compression, de duplication, traffic analysis, process automation, storage
provisioning, and memory management are some of the features that may be included.
• The operating system is in charge of storing and accessing files. The creation of files, the creation of
directories, the reading and writing of data from files and directories, as well as the copying of the
contents of files and directories from one location to another are all included in storage management.
The OS uses storage management for:
• Improving the performance of the data storage resources.
• It optimizes the use of various storage devices.
• Assists businesses in storing more data on existing hardware, speeding up the data retrieval process,
preventing data loss, meeting data retention regulations, and lowering IT costs.

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 Operating system architecture

Popular Architectures
Following are various popular implementations of Operating System architectures.
• Simple Architecture
• Monolith Architecture
• Micro-Kernel Architecture
• Layered Architecture
• Modular Architecture
• Virtual Machine Architecture

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 Inportant Terms

In operating system Architecture, we've two major terms which defines the major components of the
operating systems.
• Kernal − Kernal is the central component of an operating system architecture in most of the implementation. A
kernal is responsible for all major operations and interaction with the hardware. A kernal manages memory,
processor, input/output devices and provides interface to application programs to interact with hardware
components.
• Shell − Shell is an interface of an operating system. It can be command line interface or a graphical user
interface. User interacts with an operating system using shell. Application programs can also use shell interface to
interact with underlying operating system.
• System Softwares − System softwares are the programs which interact with Kernal and provides interface for
security managment, memory management and other low level activities.
• Application Programs − Application softwares/Programs are the one using which a user interacts with the
operating system. For example a word processor to create a document and save it on the file system, a notepad to
create notes etc.

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ber:1
 Simple Architecture
There are many operating systems that have a rather simple structure. These started as small systems and rapidly expanded much further
than their scope. A common example of this is MS-DOS. It was designed simply for a niche amount for people. There was no indication that it
would become so popular.
Few operating systems have a simple yet powerful architecture, for example, MS-DOS. That would lead to greater control over the computer
system and its various applications. The simple architecture allows the programmers to hide information as required and implement internal
routines as they see fit without changing the outer specifications.

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 Simple Architecture

Advantages
Following are advantages of a simple operating system architecture.
Easy Development - In simple operation system, being very few interfaces, development is easy especially when
only limited functionalities are to be delivered.
Better Performance - Such a sytem, as have few layers and directly interects with hardware, can provide a better
performance as compared to other types of operating systems.

Disadvantages
Following are disadvantages of a simple operating system architecture.
Frequent System Failures - Being poorly designed, such a system is not robust. If one program fails, entires
operating system crashses. Thus system failures are quiet frequent in simple operating systems.
Poor Maintainability - As all layers of operating systems are tightly coupled, change in one layer can impact other
layers heavily and making code unmanageable over a period of time.

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 Monolith Architecture
In monolith architecture operating system, a central piece of code called kernel is responsible for all major
operations of an operating system. Such operations includes file management, memory management, device
management and so on. The kernel is the main component of an operating system and it provides all the
services of an operating system to the application programs and system programs.

The kernel has access to the all the resources and it acts as an interface with application programs and the
underlying hardware. A monolithic kernel architecture promotes timesharing, multiprogramming model and was
used in old banking systems.

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 Monolith Architecture

 Advantages
Following are advantages of a monolith operating system architecture.
• Easy Development - As kernel is the only layer to develop with all major functionalities, it is easier to design and
develop.
• Performance - As Kernel is responsible for memory management, other operations and have direct access to the
hardware, it performs better.
 Disadvantages
Following are disadvantages of a monolith operating system architecture.
• Crash Prone - As Kernel is responsible for all functions, if one function fails entire operating system fails.
• Difficult to enhance - It is very difficult to add a new service without impacting other services of a monolith
operating system.

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 Micro-Kernel Architecture
As in case monolith architecture, there was single kernel, in micro-kernel, we have multiple kernels
each one specialized in particular service. Each microkernel is developed independent to the other
one and makes system more stable. If one kernel fails the operating system will keep working with
other kernel's functionalities.

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 Micro-Kernel Architecture

 Advantages
Following are advantages of a microkernel operating system architecture.
• Reliable and Stable - As multiple kernels are working simultaneously, chances of failure of operating
sytem is very less. If one functionlity is down, operating system can still provide other functionalities
using stable kernels.
• Maintainability - Being small sized kernels, code size is maintainable. One can enhance a microkernel
code base without impacting other microkernel code base.
 Disadvantages
• Following are disadvantages of a microkernel operating system architecture.
• Complex to Design - Such a microkernel based architecture is difficult to design.
• Performance Degradation - Multi kernel, Multi-modular communication may hamper the
performance as compared to monolith architecture.

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 Layered Architecture

One way to achieve modularity in the operating system is the layered approach. In this, the bottom
layer is the hardware and the topmost layer is the user interface.
An image demonstrating the layered approach is as follows −
• As seen from the image, each upper layer is built on the bottom layer. All the layers hide some
structures, operations etc from their upper layers.
• One problem with the layered architecture is that each layer needs to be carefully defined. This is
necessary because the upper layers can only use the functionalities of the layers below them.

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 Layered Architecture
 Advantages
Following are advantages of a layered operating system architecture.
• High Customizable - Being layered, each layer implmentation can be customized
easily. A new functionality can be added without impacting other modules as well.
• Verifiable - Being modular, each layer can be verified and debugged easily.
 Disadvantages
Following are disadvantages of a layered operating system Architecture.
• Less Performant - A layered structured operating system is less performant as
compared to basic structured operating system.
• Complex designing - Each layer is to planned carefully as each layer communicates
with lower layer only and a good design process is required to create a layered
operating system.

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 Modular Architecture
Modular architecture
operating system works on the similar principle as a monolith but with better design. A central kernal
is responsible for all major operations of operating system. This kernal has set of core functionality
and other services are loaded as modules dynamically to the kernal at boot time or at runtime. Sun
Solaris OS is one of the example of Modular structured operating system.

 Advantages
• Following are advantages of a modular operating system architecture.
• High Customizable - Being modular, each module implmentation can be customized easily. A new
functionality can be added without impacting other modules as well.
• Verifiable - Being modular, each layer can be verified and debugged easily.
 Disadvantages
• Following are disadvantages of a modular operating system architecture.
• Less Performant - A modular architecture operating system is less performant as compared to basic
structured operating system.
• Complex designing - Each module is to planned carefully as each module communicates with
kernal. A communication API is to be devised to facilitate the communication.

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 Virtual Machine Architecture

Virtual Machine Architecture

• In this kind of architecture, hardware like CPU, memory, hard disks are abstracted into virtual machines. User can use them
with actually configure them using execution contexts. Virtual machine takes a good amount of disk space and is to be
provisioned. Muliple virtual machines can be created on a single physical machine.

 Advantages
• Following are advantages of a virtual machine based operating system architecture.
• High Customizable - Being virtual, functionality are easily accessible, can be customized on need basis.
• Secure - Being virtual, and no direct hardware access, such systems are highly secured.
 Disadvantages
• Following are disadvantages of a virtual machine based operating system architecture.
• Less Performance - A virtual structured operating system is less performing as compared to modular structured operating
system.
• Complex designing - Each virtual component of the machine is to planned carefully as each component is to abstract
underlying hardware.

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 Computer System Operation

• A modern computer system consists of a CPU, memory, system bus and a number
of device controllers.
• I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently.
• Each device controller is in charge of a particular device type.
• A device controller for each device contains local buffer storage and special
purpose registers.
• A bootstrap program is required to initialize the computer system.
• CPU moves data from /to main memory and to/from local buffers.
• I/O is from the device to local buffer of controller.
• Device controller informs CPU that it has finished its operation by causing an
interrupt.

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 Storage Structure

• Registers
• Cache Memory
• Main Memory
• Electronic Disk
• Magnetic Disk
• Optical Disk
• Hard Disk
• Magnetic Tape

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 Storage Hierarchy

• Storage Systems can be organized in a hierarchy according to:

a) Speed
b) Cost
c) Capacity
d) Volatility
• Registers, Cache and Memory are constructed using semiconductor memory and are
volatile.
• Electronic disks can be volatile or nonvolatile.
• All secondary storage devices(magnetic disk, optical disk, floppy disk , magnetic
tapes, etc.) are non-volatile.

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 Storage Device Hierarchy

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 Computer System Components(CO1)

1. Hardware – provides basic computing resources (CPU, memory, I/O devices).

2. Operating system – controls and coordinates the use of the hardware among the
various application programs for the various users.
3. Application programs – define the ways in which the system resources are used to
solve the computing problems of the users (compilers, database systems, video
games, business programs).
4. Users (people, machines, other computers).

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 ) Components(CO1)
Abstract View of System

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 Types of Operating Systems(CO1)

Bare Machine Approach

Machine with no OS.
 Computer used to be programmed directly in machine language,
without any system software approach.
Program could be entered into RAM through front-panel switches.
Results of execution could be displayed on a set of LEDs mounted
on front cover itself.

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 Types of of
Types Operating
OperatingSystems(CO1)
Systems(CO1)

Batch Processing
Batch processing is a technique in which an Operating System collects the
programs and data together in a batch before processing starts. An operating
system does the following activities related to batch processing −
•The OS defines a job which has predefined sequence of commands, programs and
data as a single unit.
•The OS keeps a number of jobs in memory and executes them without any
manual information.
•Jobs are processed in the order of submission, i.e., first come first served fashion.
•When a job completes its execution, its memory is released and the output for the
job gets copied into an output pool for later printing or processing.

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 Types of of
Types Operating
OperatingSystems(CO1)
Systems(CO1)

Batch Operating system Processing

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 Types of of
Types Operating
OperatingSystems(CO1)
Systems(CO1)

Batch Processing

Advantages
•Batch processing takes much of the work of the operator to the computer.
•Increased performance as a new job get started as soon as the previous job is
finished, without any manual intervention.

Disadvantages
•Difficult to debug program.
•A job could enter an infinite loop.
•Due to lack of protection scheme, one batch job can affect pending jobs.

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 Types of of
Types Operating
OperatingSystems(CO1)
Systems(CO1)

Batch Operating System

•The users of a batch operating system do not interact with the computer directly.
Each user prepares his job on an off-line device like punch cards and submits it to
the computer operator.
•To speed up processing, jobs with similar needs are batched together and run as a
group.
•The programmers leave their programs with the operator and the operator then
sorts the programs with similar requirements into batches.
The problems with Batch Systems are as follows −
•Lack of interaction between the user and the job.
•CPU is often idle, because the speed of the mechanical I/O devices is slower than
the CPU.
•Difficult to provide the desired priority.

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 Types of of
Types Operating
OperatingSystems(CO1)
Systems(CO1)

Multi-programmed Batch Systems

Several jobs are kept in main memory at the same time, and the
CPU is multiplexed among them.

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 Multiprogramming Operating System(CO1)

An OS does the following activities related to multiprogramming.

•The operating system keeps several jobs in memory at a time.
•This set of jobs is a subset of the jobs kept in the job pool.
•The operating system picks and begins to execute one of the jobs in the memory.
•Multiprogramming operating systems monitor the state of all active programs and
system resources using memory management programs to ensure that the CPU is never
idle, unless there are no jobs to process.

Advantages
•High and efficient CPU utilization.
•User feels that many programs are allotted to CPU almost simultaneously.
Disadvantages
•CPU scheduling is required.
•To accommodate many jobs in memory, memory management is required.

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 Types of Operating
Multitasking Systems(CO1)
Operating System(CO1)

Multitasking
Multitasking is when multiple jobs are executed by the CPU simultaneously by switching
between them. Switches occur so frequently that the users may interact with each
program while it is running. An OS does the following activities related to multitasking −
•The user gives instructions to the operating system or to a program directly, and receives
an immediate response.
•The OS handles multitasking in the way that it can handle multiple operations/executes
multiple programs at a time.
•Multitasking Operating Systems are also known as Time-sharing systems.
•These Operating Systems were developed to provide interactive use of a computer
system at a reasonable cost.
•A time-shared operating system uses the concept of CPU scheduling and
multiprogramming to provide each user with a small portion of a time-shared CPU.
•Each user has at least one separate program in memory.

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 Types of Operating
Multitasking Systems(CO1)
Operating System(CO1)

Multitasking
•A program that is loaded into memory and is executing is commonly
referred to as a process.
•When a process executes, it typically executes for only a very short
time before it either finishes or needs to perform I/O.
•Since interactive I/O typically runs at slower speeds, it may take a
long time to complete. During this time, a CPU can be utilized by
another process.
•The operating system allows the users to share the computer
simultaneously. Since each action or command in a time-shared system
tends to be short, only a little CPU time is needed for each user.
•As the system switches CPU rapidly from one user/program to the
next, each user is given the impression that he/she has his/her own
CPU, whereas actually one CPU is being shared among many users.

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 Types of Operating
Real-Time Systems(CO1)
Operating System(CO1)

Real-Time Systems
• Often used as a control device in a dedicated application such as controlling scientific
experiments, medical imaging systems, industrial control systems, and some display systems.
• Well-defined fixed-time constraints.
• Hard real-time system. - Hard real-time systems guarantee that critical tasks complete on
time. In hard real-time systems, secondary storage is limited or missing and the data is stored
in ROM. In these systems, virtual memory is almost never found.
• Soft real-time system - Soft real-time systems are less restrictive. A critical real-time task gets
priority over other tasks and retains the priority until it completes. Soft real-time systems have
limited utility than hard real-time systems. For example, multimedia, virtual reality, Advanced
Scientific Projects like undersea exploration and planetary rovers, etc.

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 Types of Operating
Real-Time Systems(CO1)
Operating System(CO1)

Real-Time Operating Systems

A real-time system is defined as a data processing system in which the time interval
required to process and respond to inputs is so small that it controls the environment.
The time taken by the system to respond to an input and display of required
updated information is termed as the response time. So in this method, the response
time is very less as compared to online processing.
•Real-time systems are used when there are rigid time requirements on the operation of
a processor or the flow of data and real-time systems can be used as a control device in
a dedicated application.
•A real-time operating system must have well-defined, fixed time constraints, otherwise
the system will fail.
•For example, Scientific experiments, medical imaging systems, industrial control
systems, weapon systems, robots, air traffic control systems, etc.

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 Types of Operating
Multiprocessor Systems(CO1)
Operating System(CO1)

A Multiprocessor Operating System is designed to manage systems with multiple

processors, enabling parallelism, scalability, and resource sharing to improve
system performance and reliability. Multiple processors work parallelly in multi-
processing operating systems to perform the given task. All the available
processors are connected to peripheral devices, computer buses, physical memory,
and clocks. Types of Multiprocessor Operating System:-
1. Symmetrical Multiprocessing Operating System
In a Symmetrical multiprocessing operating system, each processor executes the
same copy of operating system every time. Each process makes its own decisions
and works according to all other process to make sure that system works efficiently.

Advantages
Failure of one processor does not affect the functioning of other processors.
It divides all the workload equally to the available processors.
Makes use of available resources efficiently.
Disadvantages
Symmetrical multiprocessing OS are more complex.
They are more costlier.
Synchronization between multiple processors is difficult.

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 Types of Operating
Multiprocessor Systems(CO1)
Operating System(CO1)

2. Asymmetrical Multiprocessing Operating System

In Asymmetrical multiprocessing operating system one processor acts as a
master whereas remaining all processors act a slaves. Slave processors are
assigned with ready to execute processes by the master processor. A ready
queue is being maintained by master processor to provides with processes for
slaves. In multiprocessing operating system a schedular is created by master
process that assigns processes to be executed to slave processors. Advantages
Asymmetrical multiprocessing operating system are cost-effective.
They are easy to design and manage.
They are more scalable.
Disadvantages
There can be uneven distribution of workload among the processors.
The processors do not share same memory.
Entire system goes down if one process fails.

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 Types of Operating
System callSystems(CO1)
(CO1)

What is a System Call?

A system call is a mechanism used by programs to request services
from the operating system (OS). In simpler terms, it is a way for a
program to interact with the underlying system, such as accessing
hardware resources or performing privileged operations.
A user program can interact with the operating system using a system
call. A number of services are requested by the program, and the OS
responds by launching a number of systems calls to fulfill the request.

Examples of a System Call in Windows and Unix

System calls for Windows and Unix come in many different forms. These are
listed in the table:-

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 System
SystemCalls
call (CO1)
(CO1)

• System calls provide the interface between a running program and the operating system.
• Any single CPU computer can execute only one instruction at a time. If process is running a
user program in user mode and needs a system service, such as reading a data from a file , it
has to execute a trap instruction to transfer control to the operating system.
 Operating system provides services and system call provides interface to these services.
System call is written in language C and C++ as routines. System calls are performed in a
series of steps.
 System call is a technique by which a program executing in user mode can request the kernel’s
service.
Ex: Writing a simple program to read data from one file and copy them to another file.
Types of System calls
Here are the five types of system calls used in OS:
• Process Control
• File Management
• Device Management
• Information Maintenance
• Communications
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 Types of Operating Systems(CO1)
Kernel (CO1)

What is Kernel:-
In computer science, Kernel is a computer program that is a core or heart of an operating
system. Before discussing kernel in detail, let's first understand its basic, i.e., Operating
system in a computer.
As discussed above, Kernel is the core part of an OS(Operating system); hence it has full
control over everything in the system. Each operation of hardware and software is managed
and administrated by the kernel.
It acts as a bridge between applications and data processing done at the hardware level. It is
the central component of an OS.
It is the part of the OS that always resides in computer memory and enables the
communication between software and hardware components.
It manages other tasks also such as memory management, task management, and disk
management.
A kernel is kept and usually loaded into separate memory space, known as protected
Kernel space. It is protected from being accessed by application programs or less important
parts of OS.
Other application programs such as browser, word processor, audio & video player use
separate memory space known as user-space.
Due to these two separate spaces, user data and kernel data don't interfere with each other
and do not cause any instability and slowness.

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 Kernel(CO1)
Kernel (CO1)

The kernel layer consists of OS programs which reside in

memory at all times.
Non-kernel programs normally reside on disk and are
loaded in memory when needed.
Non-kernel programs use facilities provided by kernel
programs.
Programs in the user interface layer similarly use facilities
provided by non-kernel programs.
Only the kernel programs interact with computer system
hardware.

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 Monolithic kernel(CO1)
A monolithic kernel is a large single piece of code, composed of
several logically different program pieces.
It is one single large program where all the functional
components of the operating system have access to all the data and
routines. (All those components reside in the kernel space.) Such a
program, with the passage of time, grows more and more
complex, and becomes difficult to maintain.
To avoid these problems, modern monolithic kernels are
structured in strictly functional units. One unit cannot directly
access data and routines belonging to other units. The units follow
strict communication protocols to avail services from one another.
This is though purely a programming paradigm, and whatever
be the internal structure, every part of the operating system runs in
the kernel mode on behalf of the running process.

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 Micro kernel(CO1)
A microkernel system is one that provides only the bare minimum
functionalities in the kernel, and hence, is quite small and compact.
The aim is a kernel that provides the most basic functionalities to construct the
minimal operating system services; a few inter-process communication and
synchronization primitives, a processor scheduler, and an interrupt dispatcher.
The remaining functionalities are implemented through autonomous processes
called operating system service processes or Servers.
The server programs reside outside the kernel in different address space. Thus,
servers are not truly kernel processes. They are just like any other utility process.
They run in the user space, and not in kernel space.
The user-level server processes provide services that have been traditionally
parts of monolithic kernel executed by client processes when they operate on the
kernel space. They include services such as memory manager, device driver,
system call handler, and others. The services offered by the servers are called
from the kernel via up calls.
A client does not interact directly with a server. Clients in fact are not aware of
servers, and they interact with the operating system via regular system calls. This
approach helps in making the kernel smaller. It is easier to develop and test new
services or to modify existing services in such systems.
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 Re-entrant Functions(CO1)

 Reentrant functions only modify local variables but do not alter global
data structures. To provide reentrant kernel, the kernel is implemented as a
collection of reentrant functions.

If a hardware interrupt occurs, a reentrant kernel is able to suspend the

current running process even if that process is in kernel mode. This
capability is very important, because it improves throughput of the device
controllers that issues interrupts.

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 Comparison between Monolithic and Microkernel(CO1)

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 Re-entrant kernel(CO1)

 Several processes may be in kernel mode at the same time. A reentrant

kernel is able to suspend the current running process even if process is in the
kernel mode.
Unix kernels are reentrant kernels. This means that several processes may
be executing in kernel mode at the same time.
A kernel that implements “reentrant routines” is referred to as “Reentrant
kernel”. When two tasks can execute the function at the same time without
interfering with each other, then the function is reentrant.
In non reentrant kernel mode, every single process acts on its own set of
memory locations and thus cannot interfere with others.

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 Introduction to Linux Operating System

Introduction to Linux
Linux is an open-source Unix-like operating system-based family on the Linux kernel, and the OS kernel was first
published on 17 September 1991 by Linus Torvalds. Typically, Linux is packaged as the Linux distribution, which
contains the supporting libraries and system software and kernel, several of which are offered by the GNU
Project.
Design of Linux OS
Various open-source developers admit that the Linux kernel was not developed but instead evolved from natural
selection. A Linux-based system is a compatible Unix-like OS, derived much of its common design from principles
made in Unix during the 1970s and 1980s.

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 Common Linux Commands

Common Linux Commands Shell Scripting Basics

•What is Shell Scripting?
•File and Directory Management: A script containing commands for automation
ls, pwd, cd, mkdir, rm, cp, mv •Why Use Shell Scripting?
•File Viewing and Editing: Simplifies repetitive tasks
cat, more, less, nano, vi Increases productivity
•Permissions: Useful for system administration
chmod, chown
•Process Management:
ps, top, kill
•System Info:
df, free, uname, whoami

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 Linux Operations and Shell Scripting Basics
1. Linux Operations
2. Shell Scripting Basics
Common Linux Commands:
•File Management:- What is Shell Scripting?
•ls: List files in a directory.
•cp: Copy files.
Shell scripting involves writing a sequence of commands in a file and
•mv: Move/rename files. executing it as a script to automate tasks in Linux.
•rm: Remove files. Default Shells: bash, sh, zsh.
•touch: Create an empty file.
•cat: Display file contents.
Creating a Shell Script:
•chmod: Change file permissions. Create a file (e.g., script.sh).
•chown: Change ownership of files or directories. Add a shebang (#!/bin/bash) at the start.
•Directory Management: Write your commands.
•mkdir: Create directories.
•rmdir: Remove empty directories.
Make the script executable using chmod +x script.sh.
•pwd: Print current working directory. Run the script: ./script.sh.
•Process Management:
•ps: View running processes.
•kill: Terminate a process by its PID.
•top: Monitor system performance and processes.
•System Operations:
•df: Show disk space usage.
•du: Show directory size.
•uname: Display system information.
•who: List users logged in.
•uptime: Show system uptime.

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 Linux Operations and Shell Scripting Basics
3. Variables in Shell Scripting
Types of Variables:
System Variables: Predefined by the shell (e.g., $HOME, $USER, $PATH).
User-Defined Variables: Declared by the user.
Syntax:
variable_name=value # No spaces around "="
Example:
CopyEdit
#!/bin/bash name="Alice" echo "Hello, $name"
Special Variables:
$0: Script name.
$1, $2, ...: Positional parameters.
$#: Number of arguments passed.
$@: All arguments.
$?: Exit status of the last command.
$$: PID of the current script.

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 Control Structures

4. Control Structures
Control structures allow the execution flow of the script to change based on conditions.
Conditional Statements:
If-Else:
if [ condition ]; then # commands elif [ condition ]; then # commands else # commands fi
Example:
#!/bin/bash if [ $1 -gt 10 ]; then echo "Greater than 10" else echo "10 or less" fi
Case Statement:
case $variable in pattern1) # commands ;; pattern2) # commands ;; *) # default commands ;; esac
Loops:
For Loop:
for var in list; do # commands done
While Loop:
while [ condition ]; do # commands done
Until Loop:
until [ condition ]; do # commands done

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 Functions in Shell Scripting

5. Functions in Shell Scripting

Functions help organize code into reusable blocks.
Defining a Function:
function_name() { # commands }
Calling a Function:
function_name
Example:
#!/bin/bash greet() { echo "Hello, $1!" } greet "Alice"

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 Best Practices in Shell Scripting

Best Practices in Shell Scripting:-

Use comments (#) to explain complex logic.

Validate inputs using conditional checks.
Handle errors gracefully (e.g., if [ $? -ne 0 ]; then).
Test scripts in a safe environment before deployment.
Use double quotes to handle variables with spaces
("$variable").

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 Daily Quiz
1.While CPU is executing a program, an interrupt exists then it
a) follows the next instruction in the program
b) jumps to instruction in other registers
c) breaks the normal sequence of execution of instructions
d) stops executing the program
Ans c
2.An interrupt breaks the execution of instructions and diverts its execution to
a) Interrupt service routine
b) Counter word register
c) Execution unit
d) control unit
Ans a
3.While executing the main program, if two or more interrupts occur, then the sequence of appearance of interrupts is
called
a) multi-interrupt
b) nested interrupt
c) interrupt within interrupt
d) nested interrupt and interrupt within interrupt
Ans d
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 Daily Quiz for Module 1 (Fundamental of Operating System)

For formative assessment 1 (10 questions through Google Quiz)

https://forms.office.com/Pages/ResponsePage.aspx?id=Qzw2YSCEykOPgoAWJ-Fs35C-L_6RWCtNq7l
6hvv_qC5UQzJJSTBIQzgwUVRBRVoxMkU4T0IyUFlFUy4u

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05/17/2025
 Faculty Video Links, Youtube & NPTEL Video Links and Online
Courses Details

Youtube/other Video Links

• https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLBlnK6fEyqRiVhbXDGLXDk_OQAeuVcp2O
• https://nptel.ac.in/courses/106108101

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 Daily Quiz

1.When a computer is first turned on or restarted, a special type of absolute loader

called ____ is executed
A. Compile and Go loader
B. Boot loader
C. Bootstrap loader
D. Relating loader
2.To access the services of operating system, the interface is provided by the
___________
A. System calls
B. API
C. Library
D. Assembly instructions

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 Weekly
WeeklyAssignment
Assignment

• List the advantages of multiprocessor system?

• List the services provided by an Operating System.
• Describe differences between symmetric and asymmetric multiprocessing.
• Mention the objectives and functions of OS

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 Old Question Papers
Old question paper

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 Old Question Papers
Old question paper
)

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 Old Question Papers
Old question paper

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 Glossary Questions
Glossary Questions

Choose the correct

1.The multi-user Operating System is based on the concept of ____
2. Operating system_________
3. ____ systems have more than one CPU in close communication with the others.
4. On systems where there are multiple operating system, the decision to load a particular
one is done by _____________
(Multiprocessor,Provides a layer and user friendly interface, boot loader,Time-sharing, )

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 Old Question Papers
Old question paper

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 Old Question Papers
Old question paper

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 Old Question Papers
Old question paper

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 Expected Questions for University Exam
Expected Questions for University Exam

1.Distinguish between Monolithic and Micro Kernel.

2. Explain Briefly Layered operating system structure with neat sketch.
3. Describe differences between symmetric and asymmetric multiprocessing.
4. List the services provided by an Operating System.
5. List the Components of Operating System.
6. Define System calls.
7. Distinguish between batch systems and time sharing systems.
8. Describe parallel systems and give their advantages.
9. Differentiate between Multi programming and Multi Tasking.
10. Mention the objectives and functions of OS.

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 Expected Questions for University Exam
Expected Questions for University Exam

Summary of UNIT 1
In this module,
we have studied the following:

•Overview and Concepts of Operating system

•What is Operating system
•Types of operating system
•Layered architecture of Operating system
•System components
•OS services
•System calls and types of system calls
•Kernel
•Monolithic Kernel
•Micro Kernel
•Reentrant kernel
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 References
Books :
1. Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne, “Operating Systems Concepts”, Wiley
2. SibsankarHalder and Alex A Aravind, “Operating Systems”, Pearson Education
3. Harvey M Dietel, “ An Introduction to Operating System”, Pearson Education
4. D M Dhamdhere, “Operating Systems : A Concept basedApproach”, McGraw Hill.
5. Charles Crowley, “Operating Systems: A Design-Oriented Approach”, Tata McGraw
Hill Education”.
6. Stuart E. Madnick & John J. Donovan, “ Operating Systems”, Tata McGraw

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