ELX 218 - Electronics

Introduction to Digital Electronics

Introduction to Digital Electronics
• Digital Electronics represents information with only two
discrete values (0, 1) .
• Ideally
“no voltage” (e.g., 0V/GND) represents a 0 and
“full source voltage” (e.g., 5V) represents a 1
• Realistically
“low voltage” (e.g., <1v) represents a 0 and
“high voltage” (e.g., >4v) represents a 1
• We achieve these discrete values by using switches.
• We use transistor switches, which operates at high speed,
electronically, a small in size.

2
 Bridging the Digital Device
1623 ANALOG TO DIGITAL
3 21 935 3 16 63
6 935272
CONVERSION
534 7 75 935 93 5
275
1 534
23412 37
45 1 13
7 2
145
34

0
1 1 01 00
0 0
100111
0 01
0
1 010
0100
1
01
1101
010 101 10 0
0010
1 1001 10
0
1 1 10
01 00
111
0010
1101 0 010 011 101
1 011011
011 11 0010110010
DIGITAL TO ANALOG 0 011
CONVERSION 011 01
1 0 1
01 0 1 10 1
0 1 1
1
10 0001 10
0
1 00 1 0
0 1 01 1
0 1 01 10 11 01011
1 1011 00 0
00 1 00
3
Numbering System

• Decimal Number • Octal Number

- denary counting system - Base-8 numbering system
- Base-10 numbering system -eight possible values from 0 to 7
-ten possible values from 0 to 9 (8 counting sequences)
(10 counting sequences)

• Binary Number • Hexadecimal Number

- duo counting system - Base-16 numbering system
- Base-2 numbering system -sixteen possible values from 0 to 15
-two possible values 0 and 1 (16 counting sequences)
(2 counting sequences) - 0- 9, A,B,C,D,E,F

4
 Decimal Conversion
Decimal

Binary Hexadecimal
Octal

Technique
- Divide by base, keep track of the remainder
- Bottom top answer

5
 Example
12510 = ?2 2 125
62 1
2
2 31 0
15 1
2
7 1
2
2 3 1

2 1 1
0 1

12510 = 11111012

6
 Example
123410 = ?8

8 1234
154 2
8
19 2
8
2 3
8
0 2

123410 = 23228

7
 Example
123410 = ?16

16 1234
16 77 2

16 4 13 = D
0 4

123410 = 4D216

8
 Binary Conversion
Binary

1
2 3

Decimal Hexadecimal
Octal

9
 Binary Conversion
• Technique 1
Sum of Power of 2 ^N-1

• Technique 2
Group in 3 bit starting from the most right (LSB)

• Technique 3
Group in 4 bit starting from the most right (LSB)
 Example
10110101112 = ?10

11
 Example
10110101112 = ?8

1 011 010 111

1 3 2 7

10110101112 = 13278

12
 Example
10110101112 = ?16

10 1101 0111

2 13 7

10110101112 = 1D716

13
 Fractions
• Binary to decimal
10.1011 => 1 x 2-4 = 0.0625
1 x 2-3 = 0.125
0 x 2-2 = 0.0
1 x 2-1 = 0.5
0 x 20 = 0.0
1 x 21 = 2.0
2.6875

14
 Fractions
• Decimal to binary x
.14579
2
3.14579 0.29158
x 2
0.58316
x 2
1.16632
x 2
0.33264
x 2
0.66528
x 2
1.33056
11.001001... etc.

15
 Logic Gate
• A Logic Gate is an electronic circuit capable of making logical
decisions.
• A basic building of a digital system
• It has one output and one or more inputs.
• 0 and 1.
• Divided into 2 groups:
1. Fundamental Gates  to perform basic mathematical operation ( x, +,
invert)
2. Derived Gates  to perform more complicated logic operation
 The OR Gate Y=A+B

“The output is high when

one or ore inputs are
high.”
Implementation of OR gate
Three-input OR Gate
 The AND Gate
The output is high when all the inputs are
high.
 “Y equals A AND B.”

Implementation of AND gate.

Three-input AND Gate
 The NOT Gate
• Y=Ᾱ
• Y equals NOT A.
• Y equals inverse of A.
• Y equals complement of A.
Summary
The NOR Gate
Truth Table of NOR Gate
The output is HIGH only
when all the inputs are LOW.
The NAND Gate
Truth Table of NAND Gate
The output goes LOW
when all the inputs are HIGH.
 XOR Gate
(Exclusive-OR Gate)

Output is HIGH whenever two

inputs are at opposite levels.

Also known as Selector

Gate
Logic circuit of XOR Gate
 XNOR Gate
(Exclusive-NOR Gate)

Output is HIGH whenever

two inputs are at same
level.

Also known as equal gate

Logic circuit of XNOR Gate
Example 1
Sum-of-Products & Product-of-Sum

• SOP expressions consist of two or more AND terms

(products) that are ORed together
• Example: ABC + A’BC’

• POS expressions consist of two or more OR terms (sums)

that are ANDed together
• Example:
– (A + B’ + C)(A + C)
– (A + B’)(C’ + D)F

SOP & POS is no longer called logic gates but it is known as

combinational logic circuit
Example 2
 Combinational Logic Circuit
• Represent by a logic equation
• Logic Circuit
- physical representation of logic equation
• Truth Table
- Prediction of the output from the logic circuit
 Example
• Y = AB + A’B + AB’
• Y = MNO + MNO’ +M’N’O + M’NO’
• Y = PQRS +P’QR’S+PQ’RS
 Simplification
• Using mathematical method -Boolean Algebra /
De Morgan Theorem
• Using graphical method – Karnaugh Map (K-Map)
- mapping and looping
- Theoretically can be used for any number of
input variables, but practically limited to 5 or 6
variables.
• Valid logic circuit it obtained after simplification
FIGURE 4-16 The same K map with two equally good solutions.
Example 3
Example 4
Example 5
 Combinational Logic Circuit
• Can be represented using function equation
f (m,n,o) = m0 + m2 + m3 + m5 + m6+ m7
F(A,B,C,D) = ∑ m(1,3,5,8,9,11,15)
 Don’t Care Condition
• A condition in which can be either 1 or 0 to aid
the simplification process.
• Assigned as X

F(A,B,C,D) = ∑ m(1,3,5,8,9,11,15) +d(0,2,12)

General Design Sequence

• 7 practical design steps

1) Problem Statement
2) Truth-Table Construction
3) Switching Equations Written Paper works
4) Equations Simplified
5) Logic Diagram/Circuit Drawn
6) Logic Circuit Built
7) Logic Circuit Test ( Truth table Verification) Practical
works

05/17/2025 60
 Designing Combinational Logic Circuits
Design a logic circuit that has three inputs, A, B, and C,
whose output will be HIGH only when a majority of the
inputs are HIGH.

05/17/2025 61
 Step 1: Problem Statement
• Understand what is the design requirements
• Identify the inputs and the outputs

 Inputs - A,B and C (3 inputs)

 Outputs X – HIGH when majority input is HIGH
 A input –MSB
 C input – LSB

05/17/2025 62
 Step 2: Truth Table Construction
• Define the logic combination
logic combination = 2 POWER OF N
where N = no of input

Here;
N=3
logic combination = 2 POWER OF 3
=8
05/17/2025 63
05/17/2025 64
 Step 3: Switching Equations
• Consider only for the HIGH output
• Based on the INPUT
When 0 = bar / NOT
When 1 = normal

X = A’BC + AB’C + ABC’ + ABC

05/17/2025 65
 Step 4: Equation Simplification
• To minimize the equation (reduce the no of
gate) and maximize its performance.
• Using graphical approach (Karnaugh Map @ K-
Map method)
-- Mapping
-- Looping

05/17/2025 66
 Step 5: Logic Circuit Drawn
• Based on the simplest equation obtain from
Step 4

05/17/2025 67
 Step 6: Circuit Built
• Construct the circuit based on Step 4 on the
breadboard
• Used suitable gate and proper practical approach
• Prepare the data sheet for each gate used to ensure
the pin configuration (input, output,Vcc and GND)
Ex:
7404 – AND gate
7408 – NOT gate
7432 – OR gate
05/17/2025 68
 Wiring Diagram
VDD

7404

7408 7432

A
B
C F

05/17/2025 69
 Step 7: Circuit Testing
• Check and verify the truth table
• Does the practical output match with the
theoretical as in Step 2

05/17/2025 70
 Example (revision)
• Proof that by using Truth Table
UNIVERSAL GATE

• Fundamental gates are OR, AND and NOT.

• Any function can be implemented using the
above.
• However, it is possible to implement any logic
function using NAND gates only.
• So, NAND gate is called universal gate.
• Similarly, NOR gate is also universal gate.
NAND Gate
OR gate using NAND gate only:
NOR Gate
OR gate using NOR gate only:
 Example
• By using only 2 input NAND gate, draw the
circuit to implement the following function :
•
•