Presentation

on

ELECTRONIC MATERIALS & COMPONENTS

(312316)

By

Ms.S.S.Giradkar
(Assistant Professor)

Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering Department

G. H. Raisoni College of Engineering and Management, Nagpur
Unit 3- Surface Mount Devices

(12 Marks)
• Introduction to Surface Mount Technology(SMT)and Surface mount Devices (SMD)

Surface Mount Technology(SMT):

• Surface mount technology (SMT) is the process wherein components are mounted onto the
surface of a printed circuit board.
• Surface-mount technology, or SMT, is the name of the method used for producing an SMD
• Surface-mount technology was developed in the 1960s.
• The components are designed specifically to be directly mounted, rather than hardwired, onto
the circuit board for the vast majority of electronics.
• Surface-mount technology is assembling and mounting technology.
• SMT reduces board and material handling costs.
• Surface mount Devices (SMD)

• A surface-mount device or SMD is an electronic device for which the components are mounted or placed
directly onto the surface of the PCB.
• Surface-mount devices are active, passive and electromechanical components.
• An SMD is usually smaller than its through-hole counterpart because it has either smaller leads or no leads
at all.
SMD assembly Process
1)Stencil printing:
• Stencil is used to provide fixed position for solder paste printing. It’s produced according to the
designed positions of solder pads on PCB.
• Solder paste, usually a mixture of flux and tin, is used to connect the SMC and solder pads on
PCB. It’s applied to PCB with the stencil using a squeegee on a angle range from 45°-60°.This
guarantees an even thickness across the board.
• Inspection: Once the solder paste is applied it is necessary to inspect and ensure correct printing.
2)Pick and Place:
• The printed PCB then proceed to the pick-and-place machines, where they are carried on a
conveyor belt and the electronic components are placed on them using robotic arm with a
vaccum nozzle.
3) Reflow soldering
• Soldering oven: after SMC was placed, the boards are conveyed into the reflow soldering oven.
• Pre-heat zone: the first zone in oven is a pre-heat zone, where the temperature of the board and all the
components is raised simultaneously and gradually. Temperature ramp up rate in this section is 1.0℃-2.0℃
per second until it reaches 140℃-160℃.
• Soak zone: the boards will be kept in this zone on temperature from 140℃-160℃ for 60-90 seconds.
• Reflow zone: the boards then enter a zone where the temperature ramp up at 1.0 ℃-2.0 ℃ per second to
the peak of 210℃-230℃ to melt the tin in the solder paste, bonding the component leads to the pads on
the PCB. The surface tension of the molten solder helps keep the components in place.
• Cooling zone: a section to ensure solder freezes at exit of heating zone to avoid joint defect.
• If the circuit board is double-sided then this printing, placement, reflow process may be repeated using
either solder paste or glue to hold the components in place
4)Cleaning: Once soldering process is over PCB need to be washed to remove flux residues & any stray solder
balls that could short out closely spaced components leads. This can be done with SMT solvent cleaning
machine.
5)Inspection: Lastly Pcb is inspected for any missing or misaligned components or solder bridging. This can be
done using SMT Inspection machine. If any fault is found the board is sent for rework.
Equipments and tools:
1)SMD placement Machine: It is also known as Pick and Place Machines. There are various types of
placement machines lile manual,semi-automatic,fully automatic.
• 1)Manual: Suitable for low volume production or prototyping situations. It require the operator
to manually pick and place the components.
• 2)Semi-automatic: It require the operator to manually pick but placed the components using high
precision placement mechanisms.
• 3) Fully-automatic: Ideal for high volume production. These machines perform the entire pick and
place process without human intervention.
• 2)Reflow Ovens: Reflow ovens plays a crucial role in SMD assembly by heating the PCB to melt the
solder paste and create reliable solder joints.
• A)Convection Reflow ovens: Utilizes circulating hot air to heat the PCB offering uniform heat
distribution.
• B)Infrared Reflow ovens: Employs infrared lamps as heat source but they may not provide an
even heat distribution.
• C)Vapor phase Reflow ovens: Uses vapor blanket to transfer heat, providing exceptional
temperature control and uniformity.
3)Automated Optical Inspection(AOI):This system inspect PCBs after the soldering process. They use
cameras and image processing software to check for placement accuracy ,solder quality and
presence of missing components or defects.
Applications of SMD
• Electronics & Telecommunications: smartphones,tablets,laptops and television
• Automative industry: in production of modern vehicles
• Medical devices: hearing aids, insulin pumps, wearable health monitors
• Aerospace and defence: various aerospace and defense applications and satellite communication
technology.
• Consumer Electronics: home devices, gaming consoles, IOT devices
Design considerations:

1)Component Selection:
1.Package size: select components with appropriate packages sizes to fit the board and provide
adequate spacing for soldering and inspection.
2.Thermal performance: Choose components that can handle the temperature required for
soldering without degrading or damaging the component itself.
3.Electrical Performance: Ensure that chosen component meet the electrical requirements of the
design including current handling, voltage levels and signal integrity.
2)PCB layout :
1.component placement: Place components in logical order, starting with the smallest and most
sensitive components followed by larger components such as capacitors and inductors.
2.Routing:Use short direct traces whenever possible to minimize signal loss and impedance
mismatches.
3.Thermal Management: Design PCB to effectively dissipate heat generated by components, by
including copper planes, thermal vias and proper clearance between heat producing components.
Advantages of SMD assembly
• 1.Higher component density: It allows for more components to be placed on a smaller area,
making it possible to create compact and lightweight electronics devices.
• 2.Cost effective: Due to smaller size of components and automation of assembly process it is
more cost effective.
• 3.Improved Performance
Challenges & Limitations of SMD Assembly:

• Limited heat dissipation

• Repairs and rework
• Difficulty in manual assembly
SMD assembly techniques

• 1. Material preparation and examination

• Prepare the SMC and PCB and exam if there’s any flaws. The PCB normally has flat, usually tin-
lead, silver, or gold plated copper pads without holes, called solder pads.
• 2. Stencil preparation
• Stencil is used to provide fixed position for solder paste printing. It’s produced according to the
designed positions of solder pads on PCB.
• 3. Solder paste printing
• Solder paste, usually a mixture of flux and tin, is used to connect the SMC and solder pads on
PCB. It’s applied to PCB with the stencil using a squeegee on a angle range from 45°-60°.
• 4. SMC placement
• The printed PCB then proceed to the pick-and-place machines, where they are carried on a
conveyor belt and the electronic components are placed on them.
• 5. Reflow soldering
• Soldering oven: after SMC was placed, the boards are conveyed into the reflow soldering oven.
• Pre-heat zone: the first zone in oven is a pre-heat zone, where the temperature of the board
and all the components is raised simultaneously and gradually. Temperature ramp up rate in
this section is 1.0℃-2.0℃ per second until it reaches 140℃-160℃.
• Soak zone: the boards will be kept in this zone on temperature from 140℃-160℃ for 60-90
seconds.
• Reflow zone: the boards then enter a zone where the temperature ramp up at 1.0℃-2.0℃
per second to the peak of 210℃-230℃ to melt the tin in the solder paste, bonding the
component leads to the pads on the PCB. The surface tension of the molten solder helps keep
the components in place.
• Cooling zone: a section to ensure solder freezes at exit of heating zone to avoid joint defect.
• If the circuit board is double-sided then this printing, placement, reflow process may be
repeated using either solder paste or glue to hold the components in place.
• 6. Clean and inspection
• Clean the boards after soldering, and check if there’s any flaws. Rework or repair the defects
and store the products. Common equipment related to SMT include magnifying lens, AOI
(Automated Optical Inspection), flying probe tester, X-ray machine, etc.
• Assembly and rework techniques: Contact and non contact types of soldering and de-
soldering
• Rework is implemented to fix or remanufacture PCB whose defect are exposed through
inspection.
• The basic concept of rework in soldering is to remove the faulty component by heating the solder
joints between the component and the circuit board. Remove the component or part while the
solder is molten. Remove residual solder by heating to melting temperature. The new component
is then soldered onto the board.

Types of soldering & desoldering process in SMT.

• Contact Soldering & desoldering
• Non-contact Soldering & desoldering
Contact soldering and desoldering:
• 1.soldering Iron: with a fine tip is a common tool for manual soldering in SMT. It is brought into
direct contact with the solder joint transferring heat to the solder and the component lead.Solder
is applied to create a joint.

• 2.Hot air Rework Station: This tool combines a stream of hot air with a nozzle to direct heat to a
specific area on the pcb.
• Working: The hot air is directed onto the solder joint, melting the solder and allowing for
component removal or placement. This method is effective for removing and replacing
components on densely populated boards.
• 3.Soldering Tweezers: Soldering tweezers are tools with heated tips that can grasp and solder
SMT components simultaneously.
• Working: The tweezers are applied directly to the component, and heat is transferred to both the
component lead and the solder pad on the PCB.
Non-Contact soldering and
desoldering:
1) Reflow Soldering
• Reflow soldering is a non-contact method widely used in SMT manufacturing.
• • Working: Solder paste, a mixture of solder particles and flux, is applied to the PCB using
a stencil. The board is then heated in a reflow oven, melting the solder and creating
solder joints. This process is suitable for high-volume production.
(2) Infrared (IR) Soldering
• IR soldering uses infrared radiation to heat the entire board or specific components.
Working Infrared heaters emit radiation that is absorbed by the PCB and components,
generating heat. This method is contactless and is suitable for lead-free soldering.
3) Laser Soldering
• Laser soldering utilizes a laser beam to heat and melt solder.
• Working: The laser is focused on the solder joint, providing precise and localized heating. Laser
soldering is often used for small, delicate components.

(4) Ultrasonic Soldering

• Ultrasonic soldering uses ultrasonic vibrations to create frictional heat at the solder joint
• Working: Ultrasonic energy is applied to the joint, causing localized heating. This method is
suitable for delicate components and is contactless.

• The choice between contact and non-contact methods depends on factors such as the type of
component, board design, production volume, and the desired level of precision. Manufacturers
often use a combination of these techniques to achieve optimal results in SMT soldering and de-
soldering processes.
• Desoldering
• From time to time, components fail and need replacement. When these components are
mechanically held in place with solder, a process called desoldering removes the material cleanly
and safely.
• A soldering iron or a heat gun can be utilised to melt the solder, allowing you to safely remove any
soldered components. To remove the liquid solder, you can use a desoldering pump as a vacuum,
or a soldering wick to absorb the molten solder.
• Alternatively, you can resort to an aggressive method using compressed air that can blow off the
liquid solder.
• 3.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of SMT
Advantages of Surface Mount Technology
1. Smaller, thinner PCBs
2. PCB Flexibility
3. Reduced cardboard and material costs
4. Automate Simplified Production
5. High signal transmission and high frequency
Disadvantages of Surface Mount Technology
6. Expensive Equipment :
7. Difficult Inspection
8. Easily damaged
9. Expensive small batch production
10. Less Power
SMD PACKAGES
• SMT Passive Components (Two Terminals Packages)
• A passive component is an electronic component that does not require a source of energy to
perform its intended function. Examples: Resistors, Capacitors, Inductors
(1) Resistors
• The resistor is an electrical device. The primary function is to introduce resistance to the flow of
electric current. The magnitude of opposition to the flow of current is called the resistance of the
resistor. A larger resistance value indicates a greater opposition to current flow.
• The resistance is measured in ohms. An ohm is the resistance that arises when a current of one
ampere is passed through a resistor subjected to one volt across its terminals.
• The various uses of resistors are setting biases, controlling gain, fixing time constants, matching
and loading circuits, voltage division, and heat generation.
• (2) Capacitors
• An electrical device capable of storing electrical energy and releasing it at some predetermined
rate at some predetermined time. It consists essentially of two conducting surfaces (electrodes)
separated by a insulating material or dielectric.
• A capacitor stores electrical energy, blocks the flow of direct current, and permits the flow of
alternating current to a degree dependent essentially upon capacitance and frequency.
• As can be seen, these are very small in size just like chip resistors. Chip capacitors are available in
different sizes, and values.

• (3) Inductors
• Inductors are also available in chip form. However, you can not realize large values of chip
inductors as it is practically unviable.
• SMT Active Components:
• 1. Two terminal packages:
• Diodes:
• Diode is a two-terminal semiconductor device that will allow current to flow through it in only one direction. With the
proper voltage polarity across the device, it will act as a conductor. When the voltage polarity is reversed, the device
will act as a nonconductor, allowing no current to flow.

• 2. Three-Terminal Packages:
• 2.1 Transistors:
• The transistor is a solid-state semiconductor device that can be used for amplification, switching, voltage stabilization,
signal modulation and many other functions. It allows a variable current, from an external source, to flow between two
of its terminals depending on the smaller voltage or current applied to a third terminal. Transistors are made either as
separate components or as part of an integrated circuit.

• 2.2 SOT- Small Outline Transistor:

• What is SOT?
• SMALL OUTLINE TRANSISTOR SOT package is a rectangular surface mount transistor or diode with three or more
gull wings leads. The leads are on two length sides of the package. Popular sizes are the SOT23, SOT143, SOT223
and SOT89.
• 1. SOT23: SOT23 is a Plastic surface-mounted package with 3 leads.
• 3. Integrated circuits (Four and more Terminals Packages):
• Dual-In-Line:
• Dual in-line package (DIP), sometimes called a DIL package, is an electronic device package with a
rectangular housing and two parallel rows of electrical connecting pins, usually protruding from
the longer sides of the package and bent downward. A DIP is usually referred to as a DIPn, where
n is the total number of pins. For example, a microcircuit package with two rows of seven vertical
leads would be a DIP14.
1) SOIC- Small Outline Integrated Circuit.

• 14 Lead Plastic Dual-In-Line Package

• Small Outline Integrated Circuit is the standard package for logic ICs and it is the equivalent
(although smaller) of the DIL package for leaded components.
2)SSOP -Shrink Small Outline Package.
• Shrink Small Outline Package is smaller than the SOIC and has a pin spacing of 0.635 mm.
• 14 Lead Plastic Dual-In-Line Package
3) TSSOP -Thin Shrink Small Outline package.
• TSSOP packages are ultra thin SOPs with a package L-Leaded mounting height of less than 1.27
mm, and are suited to ultra-thin electronic equipment such as smart cards.
• Type-I
• Type-1 TSSOP have leads on the shorter side of the package
• Type-II
• Type-II TSSOP have leads on the longer side of package
4) SOJ (Small Out-line J-Leaded Package):
• SOJ packages are characterized by J-shaped leads which are drawn out from each package body in
two directions, and can be mounted flat. The standard lead pitch is typically 1.27 mm (50 mil).
4.SMD Integrated Circuits-Quad -In-line:
a)QFP
b)PGA
c)BGA
(a) QFP(Quad Flat Pack
• Quad Flat Pack is a square package with leads on all four sides. The leads have a gull wing shape
and have a narrow spacing.
• The spacing varies according to the actual chip. These components are damaged easily hence it is
required to handle with great care.
• The main measurement for QFPS is coplanarity, which is established when the first lead from the
component 1 placed on the PCB board.
(b) PGA (Pin Grid Array)
• The Pin Grid Array PGA is a type of packaging used for integrated circuits. PGA uses an array of
leads as the means of providing external electrical interconnection.
• Normally, the PGAs are used with through-hope PCBs. PGAS accommodate higher density
packages that are common with 32-bit microprocessors.
• (c) BGA(Ball Grid Array)
• Ball Grid Array utilizes an array of metal spheres or balls for providing external electrical
interconnection. The balls are composed of solder, and are attached to a laminated substrate at
the bottom side of the package. The die of the BGA is connected to the substrate either by wire
bonding or flip-chip connection.
• The substrate of BGA has internal conductive traces that route and connects the die-to-substrate
bonds to the substrate-to-ball array bonds.
• Automatic component insertion technique
• An insertion mount machine or inserter is a device used to insert the leads of electronic
components through holes in printed circuit boards.
• This insertion machine automatically trims the leads, checks for the correct part value and polarity,
Inserts the part, and clinches it into place.
• The clinch adds mechanical strength and ensures direct contact between the lead and plating on
the hole. This yields a more reliable solder joint than manual insertion, where parts are loose until
soldering.
• (1) Pick-and-Place Machines
• (2) Reel-to-Reel Systems
• (3) Jet Printing
• (4) Desktop Pick-and-Place Machines
• (1) Pick-and-Place Machines
• Pick and place machines are a key element of any PCB assembly line enabling components to be automatically
placed on a printed circuit board quickly and accurately.
• Pick and place machines are relatively sophisticated machines use for PCB assembly. As the name indicates the
pick components up and place them onto the printed circuit board.
• In most PCB assembly areas, boards will be soldered using infra-red reflow, and this means that prior to the pick
and place process, the boards come having solder paste applied in the relevant areas of the board.
• The pick and place machine is also loaded up with components. There are many feeds either side of the
machine. These can take component reels, tubes and in some cases they may be in a form of flat packaging
known as a waffle pack.
• The pick and place machine has a head on an arm which can reach all the reels, tubes, etc and it picks them up
and then places them onto the board. Typically the head uses a small vacuum to pick the components up and
then release them onto the board.
• The head is very accurately controlled by the software, and uses both the accurate positioning of the board as
well as optical location on some machines to ensure that everything is placed in exactly the right position.
• Advantages
• (1) High-speed and high-precision placement.
• (2) Suitable for a wide range of SMD component sizes. (3) Ideal for high-volume production
• Applications
• (1) Mass production of electronic devices where speed and precision are crucial.
• (2) Reel-to-Reel Systems
• Components are supplied on reels (tape and reel packaging). A continuous strip of PCB moves
through the assembly line. Pick-and-place machines mounted on the line pick components from
the reels and place them onto the moving PCB.
• Components are placed and soldered in a continuous process.
• Tape-and-reel is the preferred method of feeding electronic components for automated SMT
assembly because of ease of use and high repeatability. Everything from resistors to BGAS to odd-
form components is packaged in tape-and-reel
• Advantages
• (1) Continuous and efficient assembly for high-volume production.
• (2) Streamlined process for components with consistent packaging.
• Applications
• (1) Especially useful in industries with high-volume, repetitive manufacturing requirements.
• (3) Jet Printing
• Solder paste is jetted onto the PCB pads using an inkjet-like printing system.
Components are then placed onto the printed solder paste using pick-and- place
machines.
• The assembly is subsequently reflow soldered in an oven.
• A solder jet printer deposits a precise dot of solder paste in a pre-programmed location
on a board. Most solder jet printers are completely software-driven so they can apply
precisely controlled solder paste volumes onto complex boards for perfect solder joints.
Solder jet printing systems use a flexible software solution, Every job that uses a printing
machine is prepared using CAD or Gerber data, so the PCB manufacturer can prepare
and print a new job quickly and precisely.
• Advantages
• (1) High accuracy and repeatability in solder paste application.
• (2) Suitable for fine-pitch and ultra-miniaturized components.
• Applications
• (1) Used in advanced manufacturing environments where precise solder paste
application is crucial.
• (4) Desktop Pick-and-Place Machines
• Compact pick-and-place machines suitable for smaller- scale production or prototyping. Designed
for manual loading of components into feeder trays or tubes. Operated by engineers or
technicians to assemble prototypes or small batches.
• Computer control system
• The SMT placement machine is generally equipped with computer monitor and mouse. supports
Windows Operating System. It enables visual programming and PCB file import because of the
humanized operating system.
• Automatic PCB loader
• The SMT placement machine can directly put the printing finished PCB board onto the track to
realize automatic board loading, aiming and placing and mounting. It supports multi-feeders:
maximum 50 feeders.
• Synchronous identification by four sets of cameras
• The SMT placement machine is equipped with 6 cameras: one MARK, one high precision camera
and 4 high-speed cameras. It can realize 4-head synchronous identification to ensure the speed
and precision of mounting.
• Servo system
• The SMT placement machine is equipped with servo system with high precision and stability to
ensure 24-hour stable mounting.
• Chain
• It adopts high pressure resistant and wear-proof drag chain. The drag chain can bear
thousands of times of proof pressure.
• Track
• It adopts high precision track, which has low noise and high precision to ensure the
accuracy rate of BGA chips.
• Conveyor
• This SMT placement machine can be automatically connected to conveyor which can
transport the PCB board to the SMT reflow soldering machine without manual assistant,
thus saving labour cost.
• Advantages
• (1) Ideal for smaller-scale production or prototyping. (2) Provides automation benefits
for smaller operations
Unit 4- Printed Circuit Board
(12 Marks)
• 4.1 Introduction to PCB, Advantages, disadvantages of PCB, Types of PCB and applications

• Introduction to PCB
• PCB is an acronym for Printed Circuit Board used to connect the electronics components with
each other using pads and tracks incorporated on a laminated copper sheet.
• In simple words, a copper layer is laminated on an insulating sheet/board(developed using epoxy)
and we place electronic components on this board.
• The copper layer has:
• Tracks: to allow the current flow from one component to another.
• Pads: to connect/solder electronic components to these tracks.
Advantages of PCB

• PCBs has a low cost, mass production can be achieved at a lower cost.
• It is Re-workable.
• Widely available.
• Excellent shelf life
• This board gives low electronics noise.
• Compact size and saving of wire.
• Inspection time is reduced because PCBs eliminates the probability of error.
• This board takes less time in assembling a circuit as compared to the conventional method.
• In this design, there is no chance of loose connections or short circuit.
• If in case of any damage, it is very easy to check and replace the particular failure components.
• Printed circuit board design to offer uniformity of electrical characteristics from assembly to assembly.
• The location of the electronic part is fixed and it is easy to simplify components identification and
maintenance of equipment.
• Component wiring and assembly both can be mechanized in a circuit board manufacturing facility.
• All of the above factors bring reliability in the performance of the circuit.
• Disadvantages of PCB

• Uneven PCB surfaces finish.

• Not good for fine-pitch.
• It contains lead.
• Thermal shock.
• Solder bridging.
• Not easy to repair once damaged.
• It can be used for a specific circuit.
• We cannot be updated, once printed.
• Plugged or reduced.
• Redesigning is required for one type of circuit operation.
• The etching process generates chemicals which are a harmful effect on the environment.
Types of PCB Boards:
PCBs can be divided into different types depending on the nature and number of layers used in the boards.

Single-Sided PCB Boards

• In single-sided PCB boards, copper tracks are found on one side of the PCB board.
• Pins of electronic components are inserted from one side of the board to the other side that comes with
copper tracks and lines.
• These pins are then soldered on the copper side in order to provide the conducting path to the components.
• These types of PCBs are commonly used in many electronic devices including printers, coffee machines, basic
electronics circuits and calculators.
• Double-Sided PCB Boards
• In these boards, copper tracks are applied on both sides of the boards.
• In order to provide a link between two points on both sides of the boards, holes are created on the
boards and then laminated with the copper layer.
• The components on these boards are electrically connected using two techniques i.e. through hole
or surface mount technology.
• Using through-hole technology, leads also known as wires are inserted in the hole and then each
lead is connected to the right component and builds a smooth conducting path throughout the board
surface.
• Wires don't behave as connectors in surface mount technology, instead, the whole board provides a
wiring surface where small leads are directly connected to the board.
• Double-sided PCB boards are widely used in applications including amplifiers, vending machines,
LED lighting, HVAC systems and general power supplies.
• Multi-Layer PCB Boards
• Multilayer PCB boards are composed of a number of double-sided PCBs.
• These boards are then glued together with pieces of insulation in order to avoid excessive
heat that can damage the components.
• Multi-layer PCBs come in different forms ranging from four layers to 16 layers or more.
• The thickest multi-layer PCB ever developed by professionals was 50 layers thick.
• These boards are more complex than double-layered PCBs, help in initializing faster
operations than standard PCB boards and are very similar to microchip composition.
• Multi-layer boards are used in a wide range of applications including satellite systems, weather
equipment, x-ray equipment, data storage, GPS technology and many more.
• Multi-Layer PCB Boards construction:
• The core layers are typically made of a rigid material like FR-4, and prepreg layers are made of a flexible
material that hardens when heated. The prepreg layers facilitate bonding between the core layers.
• 2. Layer Stacking
• The number of layers in a multi-layer PCB can vary, commonly ranging from four to sixteen layers or
more, depending on the complexity of the circuit.
• Each layer contains copper traces, and the entire stack is laminated together under heat and pressure to
create a unified board.
• 3. Internal Power and Ground Planes
• Multi-layer PCBS often include dedicated internal layers for power and ground planes. These planes
provide a stable reference voltage and low impedance paths for power distribution.
• . Having internal planes also helps reduce electromagnetic interference (EMI) and improves signal
integrity.
• 4. Via Structures
• Vias are used to establish connections between different layers of the PCB. They can be classified into
two main
• types:
• • Through-hole vias: Extend through the entire board.
• • Blind and buried vias: Connect specific layers without going through the entire board.
• Multilayer PCB
• A PCB is called Multilayer PCB, if it has 3 or more layers(sheets) of copper foil, insulated from
each other(by lamination or coating) and joined together to form a single piece.
• A Multilayer PCB has an Inner Layer Core present at the center of all the layers and coated with a
Copper layer from both sides, while layers of prepreg (woven glass cloth with epoxy resin) are used
for insulation.
• In Multilayer PCB, outer layers(top & bottom) are single-sided PCBs , while the inner layers are
double-sided PCBs .
• In multiplayer PCBs, few layers might be assigned with fixed tasks and are termed as
planes i.e. power planes, ground planes .
• Advantages of multilayer Pcb:
• 1. Higher Density: Multi-layer PCBs allow for more compact designs and higher component density,
making them suitable for complex electronic devices.
• 2. Improved Signal Integrity: The use of internal power and ground planes helps reduce signal crosstalk,
noise, and impedance mismatches.
• 3. Enhanced Thermal Performance: The additional layers provide better heat dissipation, which is crucial
for components that generate a significant amount of heat.

• Applications of PCB:
1. Medical Devices
2. LEDs
3. Consumer Electronics
4. Industrial Equipment
5. Automotive Components
6. Aerospace Components
7. Maritime Applications
8. Safety and Security Equipment
9. Telecommunications Equipment
10. Military and Defense Applications
• Rigid PCB :
• Rigid PCB is a circuit board that cannot be twisted or folded. The board's base material is
a rigid substrate, which gives the board rigidity and strength. They are composed of
multiple layers including a substrate layer, a copper layer, a solder mask layer, and a silk
screen layer which are adhered together with adhesive and heat.
• Although some circuit boards are either single-sided, double- sided, or multi-layered,
rigid PCBs may be any of these depending on the needs. However, once made, they
cannot be modified or changed.
• Rigid PCBs are used in GPS equipment, computer, laptops, tablets, mobile phones, X-rays,
heart monitors, CAT scans, MRI sensors, systems, temperature instrumentation etc.
4.2 Constructional features of PCB:
• A simple PCB board is composed of different layers that are joined together with the help of heat
and adhesive, giving the board a compact shape into a single object. These PCB board layers are
named:
• Substrate Layer.
• Copper Layer.
• Solder Mask Layer.
• SilkScreen Layer.
• Substrate Layer:
• The base material, also known as substrate, is composed of fiber glass.
• The FR4 is the most common fiber glass used today. It is like a solid core that provides rigidity and
thickness to the PCB board.
• Some PCB boards are composed of phenolics and epoxies which are not as durable as FR4 but
they are less expensive and come with a unique bad smell.
• Low-end consumer electronics mostly use these types of substrates.
• Phenolics come with low decomposition temperature which allows these substrates to erupt and
delaminate if solder is placed on board for a long duration of time.
• The nature of the substrate material defines whether the board will be a Flexible PCB or a Rigid
PCB.
• Copper Layer
• Besides the substrate, there exists a thin layer of copper foil.
• Heat and adhesive are used to laminate the copper foil on the board.
• commonly, both sides of the substrate are laminated with copper especially in double-sided PCB, except in
cheap electronics where only one side of the board is laminated with copper.
• The copper thickness varies from board to board
• Solder Mask Layer
• Above the copper layer foil, there lies a solder mask layer.
• This layer is applied on the copper layer to insulate the copper layer from surroundings, in order to
avoid conduction, if direct contact happens with some metal or conductive material.
• The most commonly used solder mask comes in green color, however, it's available in other colors
as well.
• Silkscreen Layer
• Above the solder mask layer, there exists a silkscreen layer that allows the user to add symbols and number
for better understanding of the board.
• Silkscreen labels provide the clear indication of function of each pin and component soldered in the board.
• Silkscreen mostly comes in white color but there are also other colors available including red, grey, black,
yellow etc.
• Flexible PCB
• A flexible printed circuit board (FPCB) is a type of printed circuit board (PCB). It allows for a variety of
applications such as flexible and rigid materials. Flexible pcb is used in electronics and computer systems.
• The flexible pcb, which is made out of plastic, can be cut into many different shapes where it can
accommodate whatever is needed.

• Advantages of Flexible PCBs:

• Elimination of several connectors
• Substantial reduction in wiring errors
• Design flexibility
• Improved signal integrity.
• Higher operating temperature range
• Improved circuit integrity
• Substantial improvement in impedance control & reliability
• Substantial reduction in size and weight
Plated through hole (PTH)
• A plated through-hole (PTH) is a hole drilled through the PCB and lined with a conductive material
such as copper.
• The lining is then plated with a metal like tin or gold to create a connection between the different
layers of the PCB.
• PTHs are commonly used to connect electrical connections between different PCB layers or
components on the board.
• The main characteristic of PTH is that, during the manufacturing process, after drilling, the boards
a thin copper layer is plated onto the walls of the holes, providing them with electrical conductivity.
• In this way, after the PCB assembly manufacturing is finished, the link between the components’
leads and the copper traces has a lower resistance and better mechanical stability.
• The most PCBs are double-sided, or multi-layered, and most of the through holes are plated.
• The components can connect to the required layers in the board. Plated-through holes can also be
plated slots, plated half-holes (castellated holes), not always round in shape
• Screen printing, photo-printing methods
• Screen printing: Adding the silkscreen layer onto a printed circuit board is the final step in the fabrication
process. Silkscreen is a layer that uses ink traces to identify all the PCB board components, test points,
parts of the PCB, warning symbols, logos and marks etc.
• The ink that is used is a non-conductive epoxy ink. The ink used for these markings is highly formulated.
There are 3 standard colors that are normally used, which include black, white and yellow, but silkscreens
can be any color.
• There are three basic ways to apply silkscreen.
• Manual Screen-printing
• Manual screen-printing is done when the line widths are greater than 7 mil (0.007”) and the
registration tolerance is 5 mil. For this method you require a stencil of the text and traces made of
nylon. The ink is pushed through the stencil onto the laminate. Next the board is baked in a curing
oven for the ink to cure.
• Liquid Photo Imaging (LPI)
• This method is used when the line widths are greater than 4 mil. Liquid Photo Imaging is quite like
the process used for the application of solder mask. In this a liquid photo-imageable epoxy is coated
on to the laminate and then exposed with UV light. After this the board is developed and cured. It is
much more accurate than manual screening.
• Direct Legend Printing (DLP)
• DLP is the most accurate of all these processes but is more expensive. In this process an inkjet
projector is used with acrylic ink that is applied onto the raw PCB directly from the CAD data. The ink
is cured with UV light as it is printed. It should be noted though that the acrylic ink does not cure on
boards with silver finishes.
• Photo Printing Method:
• The process of forming a circuit pattern image by hardening a
photosensitive polymeric material by passing light through a
photographic film.
• Soldering Techniques: Dip, wave, reflow

• Dip soldering is a small-scale soldering process by which electronic components are soldered to a
printed circuit board (PCB) to form an electronic assembly. The solder wets to the exposed metallic
areas of the board (those not protected with solder mask), creating a reliable mechanical and
electrical connection.
• DIP :Dip is solder the through hole package components, and via wave soldering or manual
soldering to fix components on PCB. Thus, all components surfaces are coated with filler metal.
• DIP is a part of the PCB Assembly work.
• Dip soldering is accomplished by submerging parts to be joined into a molten solder bath. Solders
have low surface tension and high wetting capability.
• Wave Soldering :
Wave Soldering involves passing the bottom side of a PCB over a pumped wave of molten solder to
solder component leads. The wave solder machine maintains a continuous recirculating wave of liquid
solder within a tank.
• The key stages in wave soldering process are:
• Flux application – Flux is sprayed on the bottom side of the PCB to remove oxides.
• Preheat – PCB is preheated to about 100°C to dry flux and prepare surfaces.
• Wave contact – The PCB travels over the solder wave, contacting the wave for 1-5 seconds
allowing soldering of leads.
• Cool down – PCB passed through cool air jets to solidify solder before next processing step.
Wave Soldering Application:
• Through hole components
• Wires, connectors soldered to PCB edge
• Single-sided PCB population
• Reflow Soldering:
• Reflow Soldering involves applying solder paste deposits to PCB pads, placing components on top
and then heating the assembly in a reflow oven to melt the solder and attach components.
• The stages in a typical reflow soldering process are:
• Paste printing – Solder paste is deposited on PCB pads using stencil.
• Component placement – Components are accurately placed on board.
• Reflow – The PCB passes through preheat, reflow and cool down zones to melt and solidify solder.
• Inspection – Post reflow inspection performed.
• Reflow Soldering Application:
• Surface mount components like SMD ICs, resistors, capacitors.
• High density boards with small components.
• Double sided SMD boards.
• PCB testing:
• PCB testing and inspection cover a wide variety of printed circuit board testing methods that
check if a PCB meets standards.
• TYPES OF PCB TESTING METHODS
• 1. In-Circuit Test (ICT)
• In-circuit testing is a popular PCB testing method that many PCB manufacturers prefer to
employ, and it can find 98% of faults.
• Using the ICT method, a manufacturer can test individual components and measure their
performance, regardless of the other components attached to them. Generally, this type of
testing is best for analog circuits since it’s best at measuring resistance, capacitance and other
analog measures.
• 2. Fixtureless In-Circuit Test (FICT)/Flying Probe Test
• FICT uses a simple fixture to hold the board while test pins move around and test relevant points
on it using a software-controlled program.
3. Functional Circuit Test
• A functional circuit test is exactly what it sounds like — it tests the function of the circuit.
• This type of testing always comes at the end of the manufacturing plan, using a functional tester to
check whether a finished PCB performs to specifications.
4. Boundary Scan Testing
• The boundary scan test looks at the wire lines on PCBs and is widely used as a way to test
integrated circuits when it isn’t possible to reach all the nodes of the circuit.
• In this type of test, cells are placed in the leads from the silicon to the external pins, testing the
functionality of the board.
Unit 5- Solar system components

(12 Marks)
• Photovoltaic materials
• Photovoltaic materials are semiconducting materials which can absorb light and generate
electricity. They are one of the determinants of the performances of Solar Cells.
• Solar cells (SCs), also named as photovoltaics (PVs), which can turn solar energy into electricity,
have been regarded as promising candidates for renewable sources and have drawn considerable
attention in the past decades.
• Materials used in photovoltaic devices are usually silicon (monocrystalline, polycrystalline or
amorphous), gallium arsenide, etc
• Photovoltaic materials [solar cell materials], also known as solar cell materials, are materials that
can directly convert solar energy into electrical energy. Photovoltaic materials can produce electric
current because of the photovoltaic effect, that is, if light shines on the solar cell and the light is
absorbed at the interface layer.
• Photovoltaic materials that can be used as solar cell materials include monocrystalline silicon,
polycrystalline silicon, amorphous silicon, GaAs, GaAlAs, InP, CdS, CdTe and so on.
Monocrystalline silicon, GaAs and InP are used in space; monocrystalline silicon, polycrystalline
silicon and amorphous silicon have been mass-produced for ground; others are still in the
development stage
• State the basic principle of Photovoltaic Cell for the given application.
A photovoltaic cell is a type of PN junction diode which harnesses light energy into electricity. They generally work in a reverse bias
condition. It is analogous to a solar cell since they belong to similar working principles but have distinct differences.
Photovoltaic Cell Working Principle
• A photovoltaic cell works on the same principle as that of the diode, which is to allow the flow of electric current to flow in a single
direction and resist the reversal of the same current, i.e, causing only forward bias current.

• When light is incident on the surface of a cell, it consists of photons which are absorbed by the semiconductor and electron-hole
pairs are liberated to produce an external DC supply.
• In a solar cell, the junction area is much bigger than the photovoltaic cell because its main interest is the generation of power but for
a photovoltaic cell the main purpose is the generation of electricity.
• If the incident energy (hv) is greater than the energy gap of that semiconductor material, these electron-hole pairs are generated at
the depletion region of a diode.
• When this photon from external radiation hits the diode, these electron-hole pairs disrupt the neutrality of the conductor. If an
external current path has been provided then the electrons flowing through the P-side travel towards the N-side, eventually
generating a DC current and the magnitude of this electromotive force generated is directly proportional to the intensity of the
incident radiation.
• This is the working of a photovoltaic cell.
• Advantages of Photovoltaic Cell
• They generate clean energy and are sustainable for the environment
• Low maintenance costs.
• It is a renewable energy source and easily available.
• They have a lower risk for the loss of efficiency and can be used for a longer time period.
• Cancels noise pollution.
• They can generate electricity anywhere as long as there is enough sunlight in a particular area.
• Can resolve our world’s energy crisis.
• Disadvantages of Photovoltaic Cell
• The infrastructure for photovoltaic cells are not readily available on a larger scale.
• Though maintenance costs are low, the installation is much more expensive.
• Currently photovoltaic cells cannot produce electricity at a commercial level, they operate on
devices which require less electricity and power.
• Long-range transmission is difficult when it comes to photovoltaics.
• They are fragile and can be easily damaged.
• Application of Photovoltaic Cell
• Some main applications of photovoltaic cells are as follows.
• Can be used in making solar farms, which would generate gigawatts of electricity.
• In difficult topographical conditions photovoltaic cells would efficiently deliver electricity than the
conventional source.
• Can be used in standalone devices and meters.
• Primary power source for space explorations and experiments, due to its lightweight.
• Navigation aids.
Solar Cell: Working Principle and Construction
• A solar cell (also known as a photovoltaic cell or PV cell) is defined as an electrical device that
converts light energy into electrical energy through the photovoltaic effect. A solar cell is basically a
p-n junction diode. Solar cells are a form of photoelectric cell, defined as a device whose electrical
characteristics – such as current, voltage, or resistance – vary when exposed to light.
Construction of Solar Cell
• A solar cell is basically a junction diode, although its construction it is little bit different from
conventional p-n junction diodes. A very thin layer of p-type semiconductor is grown on a relatively
thicker n-type semiconductor. We then apply a few finer electrodes on the top of the p-type
semiconductor layer.
• These electrodes do not obstruct light to reach the thin p-type layer. Just below the p-type layer
there is a p-n junction. We also provide a current collecting electrode at the bottom of the n-type
layer. We encapsulate the entire assembly by thin glass to protect the solar cell from any
mechanical shock.
• Working Principle of Solar Cell
• When light reaches the p-n junction, the light photons can easily enter in the junction, through very
thin p-type layer. The light energy, in the form of photons, supplies sufficient energy to the junction
to create a number of electron-hole pairs. The incident light breaks the thermal equilibrium condition
of the junction. The free electrons in the depletion region can quickly come to the n-type side of the
junction.
• Similarly, the holes in the depletion can quickly come to the p-type side of the junction. Once, the
newly created free electrons come to the n-type side, cannot further cross the junction because of
barrier potential of the junction.
• Similarly, the newly created holes once come to the p-type side cannot further cross the junction
became of same barrier potential of the junction. As the concentration of electrons becomes higher
in one side, i.e. n-type side of the junction and concentration of holes becomes more in another
side, i.e. the p-type side of the junction, the p-n junction will behave like a small battery cell. A
voltage is set up which is known as photo voltage. If we connect a small load across the junction,
there will be a tiny current flowing through it.
• Advantages of Solar Cell
• No pollution associated with it.
• It must last for a long time.
• No maintenance cost.
• Disadvantages of Solar Cell
• It has high cost of installation.
• It has low efficiency.
• During cloudy day, the energy cannot be produced and also at night we will not get solar energy.
Difference between Solar cell and Photovoltaic Cell
• Materials used in a Solar Panel
• Silicon is one of the most important materials used in solar panels, making up the semiconductors
that create electricity from solar energy. However, the materials used to manufacture the cells for
solar panels are only one part of the solar panel itself.
• Monocrystalline and multi-crystalline silicon are the two most basic types of crystalline silicon used
in solar photovoltaics.
• Amorphous silicon is a non-crystalline allotropic form of silicon that has been widely used in solar
photovoltaics. It is the most commonly used thin-film technology
• Amorphous silicon carbide, amorphous silicon germanium, microcrystalline silicon, and amorphous
silicon nitride are the different types of amorphous silicon used.
• Cadmium and tellurium are also used to develop solar photovoltaics.
• Batteries used in solar panel, its ratings and selection factors
The four main types of batteries used in the world of solar power are lead-acid, lithium ion, nickel
cadmium and flow batteries.
• Lead-Acid
• Lead-acid batteries have been in use for decades and are one of the most common types of battery used in
automotive and industrial applications.
• They have a low energy density (meaning they cannot hold much energy per kg of weight), but remain both
cost-effective and reliable and thus have become a common choice for use in a home solar setup.

• Lithium-Ion
• The technology behind lithium-ion batteries is much newer than that of other battery types. Lithium-ion
batteries have a high energy density and offer a smaller, lighter and more efficient option.
• They allow the user to access more of the energy stored within the battery before needing to be recharged,
making them great for use in laptops and phones—and in your home.
• Nickel-Cadmium
• Nickel-cadmium batteries are rarely used in residential settings and are most popular in airline and
industrial applications due to their high durability and unique ability to function at extreme
temperatures.
• Nickel-cadmium batteries also require relatively low amounts of maintenance when compared to
other battery types

• Flow
• Flow batteries depend on chemical reactions. Energy is reproduced by liquid-containing electrolytes flowing
between two chambers within the battery.
• Though flow batteries offer high efficiency, with a depth of discharge of 100%, they have a low energy
density, meaning the tanks containing the electrolyte liquid must be quite large in order to store a significant
amount of energy.
• This size makes them a costly and impractical option for most household use. Flow batteries are much better
suited to larger spaces and applications.
• Selection factors:
• 1. Energy Density: Energy density is determined by comparing the potential energy available to the
overall weight of the system. This means that if your application has high energy density, your
application has high potential energy for a low amount of weight. Conversely, low energy density
means your battery will be heavy and have less available power.
• 2. Current Availability (Power Density): When a device has high power density it means it can
sustain high current draws for a ‘large’ period of time (more than a few milliseconds).
• 3. Durability: Physical external factors can greatly affect the performance of your battery. Different
battery chemistries are more susceptible than others to factors such as impact, temperature,
humidity, vibrations, magnetic fields, etc.
• 4. Lifetime: There are two main factors to a battery’s lifetime: charge life and total life. Charge life is
the amount of time that potential energy will stay in the battery without trickling out. Total life is the
number of charge cycles that a battery will support.
• 5. Battery Memory: Batteries are susceptible to being ‘trained’ (for lack of a better term) to hold
less than their total available charge. For example, if you use a Nickel-Metal Hydride battery from a
full charge down to 40% of its full charge capacity repeatedly, it will eventually only be able to hold
60% of its original intended charge capacity.
• Specifications of battery like battery capacity, power ratings, depth of
discharge (DoD), round-trip efficiency, warranty and battery life span
• Battery capacity:
• Capacity is the total amount of electricity that a solar battery can store, measured in kilowatt-hours
(kWh).
• Most home solar batteries are designed to be “stackable,” which means that you can include
multiple batteries with your solar-plus-storage system to get extra capacity. capacity tells you how
big your battery is.
• Power ratings:
• In the context of solar batteries, a power rating is the amount of electricity that a battery can deliver
at one time. It is measured in kilowatts (kW)
• A battery with a high capacity and a low power rating would deliver a low amount of electricity
(enough to run a few crucial appliances) for a long time. A battery with low capacity and a high
power rating could run your entire home, but only for a few hours.
• Depth of discharge (DoD)
• The depth of discharge (DoD) of a battery refers to the amount of a battery’s capacity that has been
used.
• For example, if a 10 kWh battery has a DoD of 90 percent, you shouldn’t use more than 9 kWh of
the battery before recharging it. Generally speaking, a higher DoD means you will be able to utilize
more of your battery’s capacity.
• Round-Trip Efficiency:
• A battery’s round-trip efficiency represents the amount of energy that can be used as a percentage
of the amount of energy that it took to store it.
• Generally speaking, a higher round-trip efficiency means you will get more economic value out of
your battery.
• Battery life & Warranty: For most uses of home energy storage, your battery will “cycle” (charge
and drain) daily. The battery’s ability to hold a charge will gradually decrease the more you use it. In
this way, solar batteries are like the battery in your cell phone – you charge your phone each night
to use it during the day, and as your phone gets older you’ll start to notice that the battery isn’t
holding as much of a charge as it did when it was new. At the end of the warranty, the battery will
have lost no more than 30 percent of its original ability to store energy.
• solar battery will have a warranty that guarantees a certain number of cycles and/or years of useful
life.