Unit-1

DATA
COMMUNICATION

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
 Introduction to Data Communications
 Components of Data Communications
 Data Flow
 Networks
 Network Criteria
 Physical Structures
 Categories of Network
 Protocols
 Elements of Protocol
 OSI Model
 TCP/IP Reference Model
 Comparison b/w OSI and TCP/IP Models
 Physical Layer
 Guided Transmission Media
 Unguided Transmission Media

 Multiplexing Schemes 2
INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATIONS

•Data communications are the exchange of data

between two devices via some form of transmission
medium such as a wire cable.

•When we communicate, we are sharing

information. This sharing can be local or remote.
Between individuals, local communication usually
occurs face to face, while remote communication
takes place over distance.

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Components of Data Communication:
A data communications system has five components.

1. Message
2. Sender.
3. Receiver.
4. Transmission medium.
5. Protocol.

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FIGURE COMPONENTS OF A DATA
COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

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DATA FLOW
Communication between two devices can be
simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex as shown in

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NETWORKS

•A network is a set of devices (often referred to as

nodes) connected by communication links. A
node can be a computer, printer, or any other
device capable of sending and/or receiving data
generated by other nodes on the network.
• A link can be a cable, air, optical fiber, or any
medium which can transport a signal carrying
information.
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NETWORK
CRITERIA
• Performance
– Depends on Network Elements
– Measured in terms of Delay and
Throughput
• Reliability
– Failure rate of network components
– Measured in terms of
availability/robustness
• Security
– Data protection against corruption/loss
of data due to:
– Errors
– Malicious users
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PHYSICAL
STRUCTURES
• Type of Connection
– Point to Point - single transmitter and
receiver
– Multipoint - multiple recipients of single
transmission
• Physical Topology
– Connection of devices
– Type of transmission - unicast,
mulitcast, broadcast

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FIGURE TYPES OF CONNECTIONS: POINT-TO-
POINT AND MULTIPOINT

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FIGURE CATEGORIES OF
TOPOLOGY

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FIGURE A FULLY CONNECTED MESH
TOPOLOGY (FIVE DEVICES)

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FIGURE A STAR TOPOLOGY CONNECTING
FOUR STATIONS

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FIGURE A BUS TOPOLOGY CONNECTING
THREE STATIONS

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FIGURE A RING TOPOLOGY
CONNECTING SIX STATIONS

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FIGURE A HYBRID TOPOLOGY: A STAR BACKBONE WITH
THREE BUS NETWORKS

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CATEGORIES OF NETWORKS

• Local Area Networks (LANs)

– Short distances
– Designed to provide local
interconnectivity
• Wide Area Networks (WANs)
– Long distances
– Provide connectivity over large areas
• Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs)
– Provide connectivity over areas such as a
city, a campus

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FIGURE AN ISOLATED LAN CONNECTING 12 COMPUTERS
TO A HUB IN A CLOSET

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FIGURE WANS: A SWITCHED WAN AND A POINT-TO-
POINT WAN

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FIGURE A HETEROGENEOUS NETWORK MADE OF FOUR
WANS AND TWO LANS

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PROTOCOLS

•A protocol is synonymous with rule. It consists of

a set of rules that govern data communications.
It determines what is communicated, how it is
communicated and when it is communicated.
• The key elements of a protocol are syntax,
semantics and timing

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ELEMENTS OF A PROTOCOL

• Syntax
– Structure or format of the data
– Indicates how to read the bits - field
delineation
• Semantics
– Interprets the meaning of the bits
– Knows which fields define what action
• Timing
– When data should be sent and what
– Speed at which data should be sent or speed
at which it is being received.

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OSI MODEL
• Open Systems Interconnection Basic
Reference Model (OSI Reference Model or OSI
Model) is an abstract description for layered
communications and computer network
protocol design. It was developed as part of
the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
initiative.
• In its most basic form, it divides network
architecture into seven layers. It is therefore
often referred to as the OSI Seven Layer
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Model.
OSI Model (cntd..)

Layer 7 Application
Layer 6 Presentation
Layer 5 Session
Layer 4 Transport
Layer 3 Network
Layer 2 Data Link
Layer 1 Physical

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 OSI MODEL'S 7 LAYERS
Application to
APPLICATION APPLICATION
Application

Application to
PRESENTATION Application PRESENTATION

Application to
SESSIO SESSIO
Application
N N

TRANSPOR Process to Process TRANSPOR

T T

NETWOR Source to Destination NETWOR

K Router K
Source to Destination

Hop to Hop
DATA LINK Switch DATA LINK
Hop to Hop

Hub and Repeater

PHYSICA PHYSICA
L Physical L
Medium

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 NODE A NODE B
Sending Device Receiving Devic e

Layer 7 Supports the communication between Layer 7

Application Layer applications over the network Application Layer

Layer 6 Presents data to the receiver Layer 6

Presentation Layer in a form it recognises Presentation Layer

Layer 5 Establishes a connection and Layer 5

Session Layer terminates it when no longer required Session Layer

Layer 4 Acknowledges the flow of data Layer 4

Transport Layer including re-transmission where required Transport Layer

Layer 3 Adds the appropriate network Layer 3

Network Layer addresses to packets Network Layer

Layer 2 Adds the MAC addresses to packets Layer 2

Data Link Layer Data Link Layer

Layer 1 Transmits the data on the medium Layer 1

Physical Layer Physical Layer

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7 Application • The top layer of the OSI
model
6 Presentation • Provides a set of interfaces
5 Session for sending and receiving
applications to gain access
4 Transport to and use network
3 Network services. Processing.
• This deal with
2 Data Link layer applicatio ns.
networking
1 Physical  Email
Examples:
 Web browsers

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7 Application This layer is responsible
6 Presentation for presenting the data in
the required format
5 Session which may include:
4 Transport Code
Formatting/Translation
3 Network Encryption
2 Data Link Compression

1 Physical

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7 Application This layer establishes,
manages, and terminates
6 Presentation
sessions between two
5 Session communicating hosts.
 Creates Virtual Circuit
4 Transport Coordinates communication
between systems
3 Network Organize their communication
2 Data Link by offering three different
modes
1 Physical  Simplex
 Half Duplex
 Full Duplex

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 This layer breaks up the
7 Application data from the sending host
6 Presentation and then reassembles it in
5 Session the receiver.
It provides reliable data
4 Transport transport across the
3 Network
network. features of th is
2 Data Link  Other
layer are:
1 Physical Sequencing
Acknowledgment
Retransmission
Flow Control
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7 Application End to End Delivery
Provide logical addressing
6 Presentation
that routers use for path
5 Session determination
4 Transport Internetwork
Communication
3 Network Packet
2 Data Link forwarding
Packet
1 Physical
Filtering
Makes “Best Path
Determination”
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7 Application  Performs Physical
Addressing
6 Presentation This layer provides
5 Session reliable transit of data
across a physical link.
4 Transport Access to media using
MAC address
3 Network  Error detection
 LLC and MAC
2 Data Link
Logical Link Control
1 Physical performs Link
establishment
 MAC Performs Access
Preamble DMAC SMAC Data length DATA FCS
method
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7 Application
6 Presentation
5 Session This is the physical media
through which the data,
4 Transport represented as electronic
3 Network signals, is sent from the
source host to the destination
2 Data Link host.

1 Physical  Move bits between devices

 Encoding

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TCP/IP REFERENCE MODEL

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OSI(Open System Interconnection) TCP/IP(Transmission Control Protocol /
Internet Protocol)
1. OSI provides layer functioning and also 1. TCP/IP model is more based on protocols
defines functions of all the layers. and protocols are not flexible with other
layers.
2. In OSI model the transport layer 2. In TCP/IP model the transport layer does
guarantees the delivery of packets not guarantees delivery of packets.
3. Follows horizontal approach 3. Follows vertical approach.
4. OSI model has a separate presentation 4. TCP/IP does not have a separate
layer presentation layer
5. OSI is a general model. 5. TCP/IP model cannot be used in any other
application.
6. Network layer of OSI model provide both 6. The Network layer in TCP/IP model
connection oriented and connectionless provides connectionless service.
service.
7. OSI model has a problem of fitting the 7. TCP/IP model does not fit any protocol
protocols in the model
8. Protocols are hidden in OSI model and are 8. In TCP/IP replacing protocol is not easy.
easily replaced as the technology changes.
9. OSI model defines services, interfaces and 9. In TCP/IP it is not clearly separated its
protocols very clearly and makes clear services, interfaces and protocols.
distinction between them.

10. It has 7 layers 10. It has 4 layers

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PHYSICAL LAYER

•Physical Layer is the lowest layer and is

concerned with wiring and electrical
standards.
• It provides an unreliable bit
transmission/reception service to the layer
above it.

•Transmission Media
There are two types of transmission media
Guided – copper wires, fiber optic cable
Unguided – Wireless (Radio Frequency /
Microwave) 37
 GUIDED TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Guided transmission is where the signal (information or data) is
sent through some sort of cable, usually copper or optical fiber.
There are many different types of cabling:

Twisted Pair: This consists of two or more insulated wires

twisted together in a shape similar to a helix. The cables are
twisted around each other to reduce the amount of external
interference.
• This• cable can be used at speeds of several Mb/s for a few
kilometres.
• Used• today in countries where telephone lines are carried on
poles
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– In computer networks the two types of twisted pair
cabling most frequently used is:
• Category 3
• Category 5
– Category 3 twisted pair cables consist of 2
insulated wires gently twisted together.
Four of these pairs are twisted and wrapped in plastic.
Mainly used before 1988. Category 5 now most
often used
– Category 5 cables have more twists per centimetre
and teflon insulation to reduce the amount of external
interference and improve the signal quality

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Coaxial Cable (coax)
• This consists of a copper cable inside a
layer of insulating material.
The insulating material is then inside a
braided outer conductor.
A layer of plastic is on the outermost layer.
•This type of cable was commonly used in the
telephone system but has since been
replaced by fiber optics on longer routes
•This cable has also been used for Cable TV
and Local Area Networks (LANs)

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Fiber Optic Cable
• This consists of a central glass core, surrounded by a
glass cladding of lower refractive index, so that the light
stays in the core (using Total Internal Reflection)On the
outside is a plastic jacket
Many fibers may be bundled together surrounded by
another plastic cover
Glass Glass Plastic
Core Cladding Glass Glass
Jacket Core Cladding

Plastic Plastic
Cover Jacket

Fig. Single Optical Fiber Fig. Bundled Optical Fibers

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 UNGUIDED TRANSMISSION MEDIA

• Information is usually transmitted by either

radio or microwave transmission

Radio Transmission
• Radio waves are easy to generate and can
travel long distances and penetrate
buildings.
• Radio waves are omni-directional which
basically means that they can transmit both
ways.
• The transmitter and receiver do not have to
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be in direct line of sight
 MICROWAVE TRANSMISSION
• Above 100MHz, waves travel in straight lines and can be narrowly
focused into a small beam using a special parabolic antenna.

•The transmitters and receivers must be aligned correctly

•Multiple transmitters and receivers can be set up in parallel
without interfering with each other.

•Repeaters are needed to retransmit the signals due to the

curvature of the earth. Typically, transmitting towers are 100
metres high and repeaters are needed every 80km.
• Unlike radio waves, microwaves typically do not pass through
solid objects.
• Some Waves can be refracted due to atmospheric conditions and
may take longer to arrive than direct waves. These delayed waves
can arrive out of phase with the direct wave, causing destructive
interference and corrupting the received signal.
• This effect is called multipath fading
 MULTIPLEXING SCHEMES
There are two basic categories of Multiplexing schemes :
FDM - Frequency Division Multiplexing
TDM - Time Division Multiplexing

radio broadcasting provides illustrations of both kinds of

multiplexing

•The allocated frequency spectrum is about 1MHz, roughly

500 to 1500kHz. Different frequencies are allocated to
different logical channels (stations), each operating in a
portion of the spectrum with the interchanger separation
sufficient to ensure no interference. (FDM)

•In addition it is possible to have two alternate subchannels

operating on the same frequency. E.g. music then
advertising, then music … (TDM)
FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLEXING
•Filters limit the usable bandwidth to about 3000Hz per
voice-grade channel. Each voice channel is then raised in
frequency, each by a different amount.

•No channels now occupy the same portion of the frequency

spectrum, so they can now be combined.

•The FDM schemes used around the world are to some

degree standardized.

•A variation of FDM for Fiber optic channels Wavelength

Division Multiplexing (WDM) is used.

•Here two fibers come together at their diffraction grating, each

with its energy in a different band, and combined onto a single
shared fiber, where transmission takes place.
 TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING
•FDM requires analog circuitry and is not amenable to being
done by a computer, unlike TDM which can be handled
completely by digital electronics.

• TDM can only be used for digital data, therefore multiple

analog signals must be digitized and combined onto a
single outgoing channel.

•The analog signals are digitized by a device called a coder-

decoder, producing a 8-bit number. Samples are taken second,
such that lower sampling rate information would be lost, at a
higher one, nothing would be gained, called PCM

•TDM allows multiple different T1 carriers to be multiplexed into

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higher-order carriers, with all given a certain amount of time to
use the channel in a round-robin fashion.
 TDM FDM
TDM stands for Time division FDM stands for Frequency division
multiplexing. multiplexing.

TDM works with digital signals as While FDM works with only analog
well as analog signals. signals.

TDM has low conflict. While it has high conflict.

While it’s wiring or chip is complex

Wiring or chip of TDM is simple.
rather than simple.

TDM is efficient. While it is inefficient.

While in this, frequency sharing

In TDM, time sharing takes place.
takes place.

In TDM, synchronization pulse is

While in it Guard band is necessary.
necessary.

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REFERENCES

https://www.uio.no/studier/emner/matnat/ifi/INF1060/h
14/undervisningsmateriale/datacom-01.pdf

https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4615-
3292-7_1

https://www.oreilly.com/library/view/business-data-com
munications/9781118086834/09-Chapter001.html

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