FOUNDATION OF EDUCATION

Psychological Foundation
 COGNITIVISM
BEHAVIORISM
-Wertheimer
-Pavlov
-Kohler
-Skinner
-Miller
-Thorndike
-Craik
-Bandura
-Tulving
-Gagne
-Ausubel
CURRICULUM
CONSTRUCTIVISM
HUMANISM
-Bruner
-Maslow
-Piaget
-Rogers
-Vygotsky
-Combs
-Von Glaserfe

Psychological Perspectives influencing Curriculum and their Proponent

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

• Also known as modelling and observation theory

• Albert Bandura’s social learning theory (SLT) suggests
that we learn social behavior by observing and
imitating the behavior of others.
• Bandura realized that direct reinforcement alone
could not account for all types of learning, so he
added a social element to his theory, arguing that
people learn by observing others (Nabavi, 2012).
• The SLT states that in response to observation,
imitation, and modeling, learning can occur even
without changing behavior (Bandura, 1965).
• In the 1960s, Bandura became known for his social
learning theory (SLT). His approach recognized
reinforcement and the importance of observing,
modeling, and imitating the emotional reactions,
attitudes, and behaviors of others in learning
(Bandura, 1977a).
• the SLT developed into the social cognitive theory,
incorporating the idea that learning takes place in a
social context, “with a dynamic and reciprocal
interaction of the person, environment, and
behavior,” and a cognitive context that considers past
experiences that shape engagement in behavior
(LaMorte, 2019).
• Because of his continuing research, Bandura
became known among academics as the
father of cognitive theory (Nabavi, 2012).
• Learning is about interacting with the environment
and making a permanent change in knowledge or
behavior that improves human performance (Driscoll,
1994).
• According to Bandura’s SLT, we learn from interacting
with others in a social context. We observe,
assimilate, and imitate others’ behavior when
witnessing positive or rewarding experiences
(Nabavi, 2012).
• Bandura (1977a) agreed with the behaviorist learning
theories of classical conditioning and operant
conditioning yet, crucially, added the following:
• Mediating processes take place between the stimuli
and response.
• Behavior is learned through observation of the
environment.
• As a result, both environmental and cognitive factors
combine to influence human learning and behavior.
• The SLT states that we acquire behaviors through a
combination of reinforcement and imitation, where
“imitation is the reproduction of learning through
observation” (Gross, 2020, p. 489).
Stages of the Theory: A Diagram

• Bandura’s social learning theory provides a helpful

framework for understanding how an individual
learns via observation and modeling (Horsburgh &
Ippolito, 2018).
• Cognitive processes are central, as learners must
make sense of and internalize what they see to
reproduce the behavior. Psychological processing is
required to match cognition and behavior between
the observation and the performance (Horsburgh &
Ippolito, 2018).
• The following diagram represents the three
interconnected underlying themes of the SLT:
environmental, personal, and behavioral factors
(modified from Bandura, 1977b).
SLT PROCESSING

• The SLT suggests that we learn from one another

throughout our lives via the following processes (Nabavi,
2012):
 OBSERVATION
We observe other people’s behavior.
 IMITATION
Following observation, we assimilate and imitate the
observed behavior.
 MODELING
We are more likely to imitate behavior modeled by
people we perceive as similar to ourselves.
• While behaviorists claim learning must result in a
permanent behavior change, social learning theorists
demonstrated the importance of cognition,
recognizing that learning can occur in the absence of
behavior (Bandura, 1965).
Behaviors learned through modeling

• Bandura proposed that modeling or learning is

composed of four mediational processes or
conditions that must be met (Horsburgh & Ippolito,
2018; Nabavi, 2012):
1. ATTENTION
We must pay attention to the model. Our attention
increases when behavior is more striking, different,
or prestigious, and when the model is more similar
to ourselves.
2. RETENTION
We must be able to remember the observed
behavior; this can be increased through
rehearsal.
3. REPRODUCTION
We must be capable of replicating the
behavior just observed. Note that a novice
may not be developmentally ready to
reproduce the action.
4. MOTIVATION
We must be motivated to demonstrate what we
have learned. This can be influenced by both
reinforcement and punishment.
SLT foundational concepts

• While there are several concepts crucial to our

understanding of the SLT, the following are
foundational (Nabavi, 2012; Introduction, 2020):
 People learn through observation.
 Reinforcement and punishment have an indirect
effect on behavior and learning.
 Cognitive factors contribute to whether a behavior is
acquired.
 Learning involves modeling, yet does not require
behavioral change.
Modeling & Role Models

• The SLT demonstrates that humans learn and imitate

behaviors observed in other people. The people observed
are called models, and the process of learning is described
as modeling.

• Bandura identified three basic model types involved in

observational learning (Nabavi, 2012):

 LIVE MODEL - An individual is observed acting out or

showing the behavior.
 VERBAL INSTRUCTION MODEL- The behavior is explained
or described.
 SYMBOLIC MODEL- A real or fictional character displays
the behavior online, on TV, in a book, etc.

A lecturer who attends and enjoys a training course may

imitate and model the instructor’s technique and style to
improve their teaching methods and student engagement.
Similar modeling occurs when children watch parents read,
students see mathematical problems solved, and bystanders
witness an act of bravery (Bandura, 1986, 2006).
Bobo doll experiment

• In 1973, Bandura set out to understand the role of

modeling in learning and aggression. To test the
hypothesis that imitation played a large part in
behavior, he created situations where children
between three and five years old watched adults
acting aggressively toward a large plastic doll, known
as a ‘Bobo’ doll (Davies, 2013; Gross, 2020).
• When allowed to play with the doll themselves, the
children exhibited aggression to a degree that
matched the scene they had witnessed.
• Subsequently, when researchers removed toys, they
observed the degree of aggression in the frustrated
children. Bandura found that the children who had
witnessed prior aggressive behavior were more likely
to display it themselves.

• However, Bandura identified that the acquisition of

aggressive behaviors did not necessarily mean the
child would imitate what they had seen (Gross,
2020).
IN A NUTSHELL

• According to Bandura, learning would be a slow process if people

had to rely solely on their own efforts to do anything. Fortunately, a
substantial amount of human behavior is learned by observing
others.
• For the student to learn he or she must watch and pay attention to
the model and the behavior being modelled.
• The information observed must be retained in some form by
memory.
• The student must have the necessary motor and cognitive skills to
reproduce the modelled behavior. The motivation to observe and
reproduce the modelled behavior depends on whether the student
will derive satisfaction from reproducing the behavior observed.
Behaviorism in the Classroom

The following is a list of behaviourist principles applied

in teaching and learning:
• Use a system of rewards to encourage certain
behaviors and learning
• When learning factual material provides immediate
and frequent feedback for complex and difficult
concepts
• Provide practice, drill and review activities to
enhance mastery of facts
• Break down complex task into smaller and
manageable sub skills
• Sequence material to enhance understanding
e.g. teach simple concepts first before
proceeding to more difficult and abstract
concept
• Model the behavior students, are to imitate
and repeat demonstrations when necessary
• Reinforce when students demonstrate the
modelled behavior
• State the learning outcomes desired for the
benefit of both teachers and students
• Establish a contract with students on the work
to be done and what rewards will be given
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY IN THE CLASSROOM

1. Modeling Desired Behavior:

Teacher as a Role Model: Teachers can model positive behaviors
such as active listening, respect, problem-solving, and emotional
regulation. Students often imitate what they observe, so
demonstrating these behaviors can encourage students to adopt
them.
Peer Modeling: Encourage students to model positive behaviors
for their peers. For example, students who demonstrate good
teamwork skills, helpfulness, or academic perseverance can be
highlighted as role models.
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY IN THE CLASSROOM

2. Observational Learning:
Peer Demonstrations: Allow students to demonstrate
skills or solve problems in front of the class. Seeing a
peer successfully complete a task or solve a problem
provides a realistic and relatable example for others.
Use of Media and Videos: You can incorporate
educational videos or real-life examples that illustrate
key concepts, behaviors, or social skills that students
can observe and learn from.
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY IN THE CLASSROOM

3. Reinforcement and Encouragement:

Positive Reinforcement: When students model
desirable behaviors, praise and reinforcement can
increase the likelihood that those behaviors will be
repeated. This could be verbal praise or small rewards.
Encourage Social Interactions: Reinforce collaborative
activities where students work in groups. Positive
interactions, like helping one another, can be rewarded
and highlighted as examples of good social learning.
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY IN THE CLASSROOM

4. Creating a Collaborative Learning Environment:

Group Work and Cooperative Learning: Social Learning
Theory stresses the importance of social contexts for
learning. Group work and cooperative learning activities
provide opportunities for students to learn from each
other’s experiences and abilities.
Peer Feedback: Encourage students to give constructive
feedback to their peers. By observing how others
process feedback and improve, students can learn
important social and academic skills.
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY IN THE CLASSROOM

6. Imitation and Practice:

Role-Playing Activities: Engage students in role-playing
activities where they can practice certain behaviors (like
conflict resolution, teamwork, or leadership) and
observe how others handle similar situations.
Simulations and Experiential Learning: Let students
engage in real-life simulations or activities where they
can observe and practice new behaviors in a controlled,
supportive environment.
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY IN THE CLASSROOM

7. Creating a Safe and Supportive Environment:

Encourage Positive Interactions: Create an
environment where students feel safe to express
themselves, ask questions, and learn from others. This
helps students feel more comfortable mimicking
positive behaviors they see in their peers and teachers.
Modeling Problem-Solving: Use a think-aloud method
to model how to approach challenges and problems in
the classroom. This allows students to observe how to
handle situations thoughtfully and responsibly.
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY IN THE CLASSROOM

8. Social Cognitive Development:

Self-Regulation: Teach students self-regulation
techniques, such as setting goals, monitoring progress,
and adjusting strategies. These skills can be modeled by
the teacher and reinforced through observation.
Developing Empathy: Create opportunities for students
to observe the consequences of behaviors on others,
promoting empathy and understanding. For example,
discussing how acts of kindness positively affect the
classroom environment can encourage students to repeat
these behaviors.
CONDITIONS OF LEARNING THEORY

• Gagne’s Conditions of Learning, also known as Robert

Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction, is a set of
instructional design principles developed by
psychologist Robert Gagne. These conditions outline a
sequence of events that enhance the learning process
and promote effective instruction.
• Gagne’s theory of instructional learning offers a more
rounded theory of learning and instruction than other
cognitive psychologists; and one which offers far more
directive advice on how the teacher should manage
individual lessons.
INSTRUCTIONAL EVENTS

• The nine events provide a framework for designing and

delivering instruction in a structured and systematic
manner.
1. Gain Attention: This event aims to capture the learners’
attention and engage them in the learning process. It can
be achieved through the use of stimulating and relevant
stimuli or by posing questions or problems.
2. Inform Learners of the Objective: Learners need to be
aware of the specific learning objectives or goals they
are expected to achieve. Clear communication of these
objectives helps to focus their attention and motivate
them to learn.
3. Stimulate Recall of Prior Knowledge: Activating learners’ prior
knowledge helps them connect new information to existing
mental frameworks. By reviewing relevant concepts or
experiences, learners can build upon what they already know.
4. Present the Content: The instructional content is presented to
the learners in a structured and organized manner. It should be
logically sequenced, chunked into manageable units, and
delivered using appropriate instructional strategies such as
lectures, visuals, or multimedia.
5. Provide Guidance: Learners need guidance and support to
understand and acquire new knowledge or skills. This event
involves providing clear explanations, examples, demonstrations,
and instructions to assist learners in grasping the content.
6. Elicit Performance: Learners are given opportunities
to practice what they have learned. This active
participation helps reinforce the newly acquired
knowledge or skills and allows for feedback and
correction if needed.
7. Provide Feedback: Learners receive feedback on their
performance, indicating whether they have achieved
the desired learning outcomes. Feedback helps them
assess their progress, identify areas for improvement,
and reinforce correct understanding or behavior.
8. Assess Performance: This event involves assessing
learners’ performance to determine the extent to which
they have achieved the learning objectives. Various
assessment methods such as quizzes, tests, or practical
exercises, can be used to evaluate their progress.
9. Enhance Retention and Transfer: The final event focuses
on promoting long-term retention and transfer of the
learned material to real-world contexts. Strategies such
as providing opportunities for review, application in
different situations, and promoting transfer of knowledge
to other domains are employed to solidify learning.
EXAMPLE: