Chapter 15

Hashing and Collision

 Introduction
• While linear search algorithm has running time proportional to O(n), binary search takes time
proportional to O(log n), where n is the number of elements in the array.

• is there any way in which searching can be done in constant time O(1), irrespective of the
number of elements in the array?

• There are two solutions to this problem. To analyze the first solution let us take an example. In a
small company of 100 employees, each employee is assigned an Emp_ID number in the range 0 –
99. To store the employee’s records in an array, each employee’s Emp_ID number act as an index
in to the array where this employee’s record will be stored as shown in figure.
 Introduction

KEY ARRAY OF EMPLOYEE’S RECORD

Key 0 [0] Record of employee having Emp_ID 0

Key 1 [1] Record of employee having Emp_ID 1

Key 2 [2] Record of employee having Emp_ID 2

………………………… ………………………………………….

………………………… …………………………………………..

Key 98 [98] Record of employee having Emp_ID 98

Key 99 [99] Record of employee having Emp_ID 99

 Introduction
In this case we can directly access the record of any employee, once we know his Emp_ID, because
array index is same as that of Emp_ID number. But practically, this implementation is hardly feasible.

Let us assume that the same company use a five digit Emp_ID number as the primary key. In this case,
key values will range from 00000 to 99999. If we want to use the same technique as above, we will need
an array of size 100,000, of which only 100 elements will be used. This is illustrated in figure.

KEY ARRAY OF EMPLOYEE’S RECORD

Key 00000 [0] Record of employee having Emp_ID 00000

………………………… ………………………………………….

Key n [n] Record of employee having Emp_ID n

………………………… …………………………………………..

Key 99998 [99998] Record of employee having Emp_ID 99998

Key 99999 [99999] Record of employee having Emp_ID 99999

 Introduction
It is impractical it is to waste that much storage just to ensure that each employee’ record is in
a unique and predictable location.

•Whether we use a two digit primary key (Emp_ID) or a five digit key, there are just 100
employees in the company. Thus, we will be using only 100 locations in the array. Therefore, in
order to keep the array size down to the size that we will actually be using (100 elements),
another good option is to use just the last two digits of key to identify each employee. For
example, the employee with Emp_ID number 79439 will be stored in the element of the array
with index 39. Similarly, employee with Emp_ID 12345 will have its record stored in the array
at the 45th location.

• So in this situation, we need a way to convert a five-digit key number to two-digit array
index. We need some function that will do the transformation.

• In this case, we will use the term Hash Table for an array and the function that will carry out
the transformation will be called a Hash Function.
 Hash Table
• Hash Table is a data structure in which keys are mapped to array
positions by a hash function.

• A value stored in the Hash Table can be searched in O(1) time using a
hash function to generate an address from the key (by producing the
index of the array where the value is stored).
 Hash Function
• Hash Function, h is simply a mathematical formula which when applied to the key, produces an integer which can
be used as an index for the key in the hash table.

• The main aim of a hash function is that elements should be relatively randomly and uniformly distributed.

• Hash function produces a unique set of integers within some suitable range. Such function produces no collisions.
• A good hash function should have following properties
1) Efficiently computable.
2) Should uniformly distribute the keys (Each table position equally likely
for each key)
 Different Hash Functions
Division Method
•Division method is the most simple method of hashing an integer x. The method divides x by
M and then use the remainder thus obtained. In this case, the hash function can be given as
h(x) = x mod M

•The method works very fast. However, extra care should be taken to select a suitable value for
M.
•Generally, it is best to choose M to be a prime number because making M a prime increases
the likelihood that the keys are mapped with a uniformity in the output range of values.
•Example: Calculate hash values of keys 1234 and 5462.
Setting m = 97, hash values can be calculated as
h(1234) = 1234 % 97 = 70 h(5642) = 5642 % 97 = 16
 Hash Function
Multiplication Method
The steps involved in the multiplication method can be given as below:
Step 1: Choose a constant A such that 0 < A < 1.
Step 2: Multiply the key k by A
Step 3: Extract the fractional part of kA
Step 4: Multiply the result of Step 3 by m (hash table size) and take the floor.
Hence, the hash function can be given as,
h (x) = └ m ( k A mod 1) ┘
where, (kA mod 1) gives the fractional part of kA and m is the total number of
indices in the hash table

The greatest advantage of the multiplication method is that it works practically with
any value of A.
Knuth has suggested that the best choice of A is
» (sqrt5 - 1) /2 = 0.6180339887
 Hash Function
Example: Given a hash table of size 1000, map the key 12345 to an appropriate location in the hash table

We will use A = 0.618033, m = 1000 and k = 12345

h(12345) = └ 1000 ( 12345 X 0.618033 mod 1 ) ┘

= └ 1000 ( 7629.617385 mod 1 ) ┘
= └ 1000 ( 0.617385) ┘
= 617.385
= 617
 Hash Function
Mid Square Method
Mid square method is a good hash function which works in two steps.
Step 1: Square the value of the key. That is, find k2
Step 2: Extract the middle r bits of the result obtained in Step 1. where r is the max
no. of digits needed to map the key to a location in the hash table

In the mid square method, the same r bits must be chosen from all the keys.
Therefore, the hash function can be given as,
h (k) = s
where, s is obtained by selecting r bits from k2
 Hash Function
Example: Calculate the hash value for keys 1234 and 5642 using the mid square method. The hash table has 100 memory locations.

Note the hash table has 100 memory locations whose indices vary from 0-99. this means, only two digits are needed to map the key
to a location in the hash table, so r = 2.

When k = 1234, k2 = 1522756, h(k) = 27

When k = 5642, k2 = 31832164, h (k) = 21

Observe that 3rd and 4th digits starting from the right are chosen.
 Hash Function
Folding Method
Step 1: Divide the key value into a number of parts. That is divide k into parts, k1, k2,
…, kn, where each part has the same number of digits except the last part which may
have lesser digits than the other parts.
Step 2: Add the individual parts. That is obtain the sum of k1 + k2 + .. + kn. Hash
value is produced by ignoring the last carry, if any.

To address these 1000 locations, we will need at least three digits, therefore, each
part of the key must have three digits except the last part which may have lesser
digits.
 Hash Function
Example: Given a hash table of 100 locations, calculate the hash value
using folding method for keys- 5678, 321 and 34567.
Here, since there are 100 memory locations to address, we will break the
key into parts where each part (except the last) will contain two digits.
Therefore,

Key 5678 321 34567

Parts 56 and 78 32 and 1 34, 56 and 7

Sum 134 33 97

Hash Value 34 (ignore the last carry) 33 97

 Collisions
• Collision occurs when the hash function maps two different keys to same location.

• Obviously, two records can not be stored in the same location.

•The two most popular methods of resolving collision are:
• Collision resolution by open addressing
• Collision resolution by chaining
Collision Resolution by Open Addressing

• Once a collision takes place, open addressing computes new positions using a probe
sequence and the next record is stored in that position.

• In this technique of collision resolution, all the values are stored in the hash table.

• The hash table will contain two types of values- either sentinel value (for example, -1) or a
data value.
--The presence of sentinel value indicates that the location contains no data value at present but
can be used to hold a value.

• The process of examining memory locations in the hash table is called probing.

• Open addressing technique can be implemented using- linear probing, quadratic probing
and double hashing.
 Linear Probing
The simplest approach to resolve a collision is linear probing. In this technique, if a
value is already stored at location generated by h(k), then the following hash
function is used to resolve the collision.
h(k, i) = [h’(k) + i] mod m
where, m is the size of the hash table, h’(k) = k mod m and i is the probe number and
varies from 0 to m-1.
 Linear Probing
Example: Consider a hash table with size = 10. Using linear probing insert
the keys 72, 27, 36, 24, 63, 81 and 92 into the table.
Let h’(k) = k mod m, m = 10
Initially the hash table can be given as,
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
-1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1

Step1: Key = 72
h(72, 0) = (72 mod 10 + 0) mod 10 h(k, i) = [h’(k) + i] mod m
= (2) mod 10
=2
Since, T[2] is vacant, insert key 72 at this location
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

-1 -1 72 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1
 Linear Probing
h(k, i) = [h’(k) + i] mod m
Step2: Key = 27
h(27, 0) = (27 mod 10 + 0) mod 10
= (7) mod 10
=7
Since, T[7] is vacant, insert key 27 at this location

Step3: Key = 36
h(36, 0) = (36 mod 10 + 0) mod 10
= (6) mod 10
=6
Since, T[6] is vacant, insert key 36 at this location

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

-1 -1 72 -1 -1 -1 36 27 -1 -1
 Linear Probing
Step4: Key = 24 h(k, i) = [h’(k) + i] mod m
h(24, 0) = (24 mod 10 + 0) mod 10
= (4) mod 10
=4
Since, T[4] is vacant, insert key 24 at this location
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

-1 -1 72 -1 24 -1 36 27 -1 -1

Step5: Key = 63
h(63, 0) = (63 mod 10 + 0) mod 10
= (3) mod 10
=3
Since, T[3] is vacant, insert key 63 at this location
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

-1 -1 72 63 24 -1 36 27 -1 -1
 Linear Probing
Step6: Key = 81
h(81, 0) = (81 mod 10 + 0) mod 10
= (1) mod 10
=1
Since, T[1] is vacant, insert key 81 at this location
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
-1 81 72 63 24 -1 36 27 -1 -1

Step7: Key = 92
h(92, 0) = (92 mod 10 + 0) mod 10
= (2) mod 10
=2
Now, T[2] is occupied, so we cannot store the key 92 in T[2]. Therefore, try again
for next location. Thus probe, i = 1, this time.
Key = 92
h(92, 1) = (92 mod 10 + 1) mod 10
= (2 + 1) mod 10
=3
 Linear Probing
Now, T[3] is occupied, so we cannot store the key 92 in T[3]. Therefore, try again
for next location. Thus probe, i = 2, this time.
Key = 92
h(92, 2) = (92 mod 10 + 2) mod 10
= (2 + 2) mod 10
=4
Now, T[4] is occupied, so we cannot store the key 92 in T[4]. Therefore, try again
for next location. Thus probe, i = 3, this time.
Key = 92
h(92, 3) = (92 mod 10 + 3) mod 10
= (2 + 3) mod 10
=5
Since, T[5] is vacant, insert key 92 at this location
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
-1 -1 72 63 24 92 36 27 -1 -1
Problem with Hashing
• Clustering: The problem with linear probing is that keys tend to cluster. It suffers
from primary clustering: Any key that hashes to any position in a cluster (not just
collisions), must probe beyond the cluster and adds to the cluster size.

• Worse yet, primary clustering not only makes the probe sequence longer, it also
makes it more likely that it will be lengthen further.
Searching a value using Linear Probing
• When searching a value in the hash table, the array index is re-computed and the key of the element
stored at that location is checked with the value that has to be searched.

• If a match is found, then the search operation is successful. The search time in this case is given as
O(1).
• Otherwise, if the key does not match, then the search function begins a sequential search of the array
that continues until:
– the value is found
– the search function encounters a vacant location in the array, indicating that the value is not
present

• In worst case, the search operation may have to make (n-1) comparison, and the
running time of the search algorithm may take time given as O(n).
Searching a value using Linear Probing
• Thus in Linear Probing, with increase in the number of collisions, the
distance from the array index computed by the hash function and the
actual location of the element increases, thereby increasing the search
time.
 Quadratic Probing
• In quadratic probing technique, if a value is already stored at location generated by h(k), then the following
hash function is used to resolve the collision.
h(k, i) = [h’(k) + c1i + c2i2] mod m
where, m is the size of the hash table, h’(k) = k mod m and i is the probe number that varies from 0 to m-1 and
c1 and c2 are constants such that c1 and c2 ≠ 0.

• Quadratic probing eliminates the primary clustering phenomenon of linear probing because instead of
doing a linear search, it does a quadratic search.

• For a given key k, first the location generated by h’(k) mod m is probed. If the location is free, the value is
stored in it else, subsequent locations probed are offset by factors that depend in a quadratic manner on the
probe number i. Although quadratic probing performs better than linear probing but to maximize the utilization
of the hash table, the values of c1, c2 and m needs to be constrained.
 Quadratic Probing
Example: Consider a hash table with size = 10. Using quadratic probing insert the
keys 72, 27, 36, 24, 63, 81 and 101 into the table. Take c1 = 1 and c2 = 3.
Let h’(k) = k mod m, m = 10
Initially the hash table can be given as,
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
-1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1

We have,
h(k, i) = [h’(k) + c1i + c2i2] mod m
Step1: Key = 72
h(72) = [ 72 mod 10 + 1 X 0 + 3 X 0] mod 10
= [72 mod 10] mod 10
= 2 mod 10
=2
Since, T[2] is vacant, insert the key 72 in T[2]. The hash table now becomes,
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
-1 -1 72 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1
 Quadratic Probing
h(k, i) = [h’(k) + c1i + c2i2] mo
Step2: Key = 27
h(27) = [ 27 mod 10 + 1 X 0 + 3 X 0] mod 10
= [27 mod 10] mod 10
= 7 mod 10
=7
Since, T[7] is vacant, insert the key 27 in T[7]. The hash table now becomes,
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
-1 -1 72 -1 -1 -1 -1 27 -1 -1

Step3: Key = 36
h(36) = [ 36 mod 10 + 1 X 0 + 3 X 0] mod 10
= [36 mod 10] mod 10
= 6 mod 10
=6
Since, T[6] is vacant, insert the key 36 in T[6]. The hash table now becomes,
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
-1 -1 72 -1 -1 -1 36 27 -1 -1
 Quadratic Probing
h(k, i) = [h’(k) + c1i + c2i2] mod
Step4: Key = 24
h(24) = [ 24 mod 10 + 1 X 0 + 3 X 0] mod 10
= [24 mod 10] mod 10
= 4 mod 10
=4
Since, T[4] is vacant, insert the key 24 in T[4]. The hash table now becomes,
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
-1 -1 72 -1 24 -1 36 27 -1 -1

Step5: Key = 63
h(63) = [ 63 mod 10 + 1 X 0 + 3 X 0] mod 10
= [63 mod 10] mod 10
= 3 mod 10
=3
Since, T[3] is vacant, insert the key 63 in T[3]. The hash table now becomes,
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
-1 -1 72 63 24 -1 36 27 -1 -1
 Quadratic Probing
h(k, i) = [h’(k) + c1i + c2i2] mod
Step6: Key = 81
h(81) = [ 81 mod 10 + 1 X 0 + 3 X 0] mod 10
= [81 mod 10] mod 10
= 81 mod 10
=1
Since, T[1] is vacant, insert the key 81 in T[1]. The hash table now
becomes,

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
-1 81 72 63 24 -1 36 27 -1 -1
 Quadratic Probing
h(k, i) = [h’(k) + c1i + c2i2] mod
Step7: Key = 101
h(101) = [101 mod 10 + 1 X 0 + 3 X 0] mod 10
= [101 mod 10 + 0] mod 10
= 1 mod 10
=1
Since, T[1] is already occupied, the key 101 can not be stored in T[1]. Therefore,
try again for next location. Thus probe, i = 1, this time.
Key = 101
h(101) = [ 101 mod 10 + 1 X 1 + 3 X 1] mod 10
= [101 mod 10 + 1 + 3] mod 10
= [101 mod 10 + 4] mod 10
= [1 + 4] mod 10
= 5 mod 10
=5
Since, T[5] is vacant, insert the key 101 in T[5]. The hash table now becomes,
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
-1 81 72 63 24 101 36 27 -1 -1
 Adv and Disadvantages of
Quadratic Probing
• Although quadratic probing is free from primary clustering, but it is still liable to
what is known as secondary clustering.
– This means that if there is a collision between two keys then the same probe
sequence will be followed for both.
– With quadratic probing, potential for multiple collisions increases as the table
becomes full. This situation is usually encountered when the hash table is
more than full.

• One of the major drawbacks with quadratic probing is that a sequence of

successive probes may only explore a fraction of the table, and this fraction may
be quite small. If this happens then we will not be able to find an empty location in
the table despite the fact that the table is by no means full.
• (e.g. In our example try to insert 92)
Searching a value using Quadratic Probing
While searching for a value using quadratic probing technique, the array index is re-
computed and the key of the element stored at that location is checked with the value
that has to be searched. If the desired key value matches the key value at that location,
then the element is present in the hash table and the search is said to be successful. In
this case the search time is given as O(1). However, if the value does not match then,
the search function begins a sequential search of the array that continues until:

• the value is found

• the search function encounters a vacant location in the array, indicating that the
value is not present

• the search function terminates because the table is full and the value is not
present
 Double Hashing
• To start with, double hashing uses one hash value and then repeatedly steps
forward an interval until an empty location is reached.
• The interval is decided using a second, independent hash function, hence the
name double hashing. Therefore, in double hashing we use two hash functions
rather a single function.

• The hash function in case of double hashing can be given as,

h(k, i) = [h1(k) + ih2(k)] mod m

• where, m is the size of the hash table, h 1(k) and h2(k) are two hash functions
given as, h1(k) = k mod m, h2(k) = k mod m’, i is the probe number that varies
from 0 to m-1 and m’ is chosen to be less than m. we can choose m’ = m-1 or m-
2.
 Double Hashing
• When we have to insert a key k in the hash table, we first probe the
location given by applying h1(k) mod m because during the first probe, i
= 0.

• If the location is vacant the key is inserted into it else subsequent probes
generate locations that are at an offset of h2(k) mod m from the previous
location.
 Example of Double Hashing
Example: Consider a hash table with size = 11. Using double hashing insert the keys 72,
27, 36, 24, 63, 81, 92 and 101 into the table. Take h1 =( k mod 10) and h2 =( k mod 8).
Let m = 11 Initially the hash table can be given as,
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

We have, -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1

h(k, i) = [h1(k) + ih2(k)] mod m

Step1: Key = 72
h(72, 0) = [ 72 mod 10 + (0 X 72 mod 8] mod 11
= [ 2 + ( 0 X 0) ] mod 11
= 2 mod 11
=2
Since, T[2] is vacant, insert the key 72 in T[2]. The hash table now becomes,
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

-1 -1 72 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1
Pros and Cons
Example of Double
of Double Hashing
Hashing
Step2: Key = 27 h(k, i) = [h1(k) + ih2(k)] mod
h(27, 0) = [ 27 mod 10 + (0 X 27 mod 8)] mod 10
= [7 + ( 0 X 3) ] mod 10
= 7 mod 10
=7
Since, T[7] is vacant, insert the key 27 in T[7]. The hash table now becomes,
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

-1 -1 72 -1 -1 -1 -1 27 -1 -1

Step3: Key = 36
h(36, 0) = [36 mod 10 + (0 X 36 mod 8)] mod 10
= [6 + ( 0 X 4) ] mod 10
= 6 mod 10
=6
Since, T[6] is vacant, insert the key 36 in T[6]. The hash table now becomes,
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

-1 -1 72 -1 -1 -1 36 27 -1 -1
Pros and Cons
Example of Double
of Double Hashing
Hashing
Step7: Key = 92 h(k, i) = [h1(k) + ih2(k)] mod
h(92, 0) = [92 mod 10 + (0 X 92 mod 8)] mod 10
= [2 + ( 0 X 4) ] mod 10
= 2 mod 10
=2
Now, T[2] is occupied, so we cannot store the key 92 in T[2]. Therefore, try
again for next location. Thus probe, i = 1, this time.
Key = 92
h(92, 1) = [92 mod 10 + (1 X 92 mod 8)] mod 10
= [2 + ( 1 X 4) ] mod 10
= (2 + 4) mod 10
= 6 mod 10
=6
Pros and Cons
Example of Double
of Double Hashing
Hashing
Now, T[6] is occupied, so we cannot store the key 92 in T[6]. Therefore, try
again for next location. Thus probe, i = 2, this time.
Key = 92
h(92) = [92 mod 10 + (2 X 92 mod 8)] mod 10
= [ 2 + ( 2 X 4)] mod 10
= [ 2 + 8] mod 10
= 10 mod 10
=0
Since, T[1] is vacant, insert the key 81 in T[1]. The hash table now becomes,

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

90 81 72 63 24 -1 36 27 -1 -1

h(k, i) = [h1(k) + ih2(k)] mod m

Pros and Cons of Double Hashing
• Double hashing minimizes repeated collisions and the effects of clustering.
That is, double hashing is free from problems associated with primary
clustering as well secondary clustering.
 Collision Resolution by Chaining
• In chaining, each location in the hash table stores a pointer to a linked list that contains the all key
values that were hashed to the same location.
• That is, location l in the hash table points to the head of the linked list of all the key values that hashed
to l.
• However, if no key value hashes to l, then location l in the hash table contains NULL.
Collision Resolution by Changing
Figure shows how the key values are mapped to a location l in the
hash table and stored in a linked list that corresponds to l.

k1 X
0

1 NULL

k2 X
2
Universe of keys (U)

Actual Keys used

(K) 3 k3 k4 X
k1 k2 k3
k4
k5 k6 k7 4 NULL

5 NULL

6 NULL

7 k5 X

8 NULL

9
k6 k7 X
 Collision Resolution by Chaining
Example: Insert the keys 7, 24, 18, and 52 in a chained hash table of 9 memory locations. Use
h(k) = k mod m 0 NULL

1 NULL

In this case, m=9. Initially, the hash table can be 2 NULL

given as 3 NULL

Step 1: Key = 7 4 NULL

5 NULL
0 NULL
6 NULL
1 NULL 7 NULL

8 NULL
2 NULL
9 NULL
3 NULL

4 NULL 0 NULL
Step 2: Key = 24
1 NULL
5 NULL h(k) = 24 mod 9
2 NULL
6 NULL =6
3 NULL

4 NULL
7 7 X
5 NULL

6
8 NULL 24 X

9 NULL 7 7 X

8 NULL

9 NULL
 Collision Resolution by Changing
0
Step 3: Key = 18 18 X

1 NULL
h(k) = 18 mod = 0 2 NULL

3 NULL

4 NULL

5 NULL

6 24 X

7 X
7

8 NULL 18 X
0
9 NULL
1 NULL

Step 4: Key = 52 2 NULL

h(k) = 52 mod 9 3

4
NULL

NULL
=7 5 NULL

Insert 52 in the beginning of the linked 6

24 X

list of location 7 7 52 X
7

8 NULL

9 NULL
Pros and Cons of Chained Hash Table
• The main advantage of using a chained hash table is that it remains effective even
when the number of key values to be stored is much higher than the number of
locations in the hash table.

• However, with the increase in number of keys to be stored, the performance of

chained hash table does degrade gracefully (linearly).

• For example, a chained hash table with 1000 memory locations and 10,000 stored
keys will give 5 to 10 times less performance as compared to the performance of
chained hash table having 10,000 locations. But the conclusion is that a chained
hash table is still 1000 times faster than a simple hash table.
Pros and Cons of Chained Hash Table
• The other advantage of using chaining for collision resolution is that
unlike in quadratic probing, the performance does not degrades when the
table is more than half full.
• This technique is absolutely free from clustering problems and thus
provides an efficient mechanism to handle collisions.
© Oxford University Press 2014. All rights
 Pros and Cons of Hashing
• One advantage of hashing is that no extra space is required to store the index as in case of other data
structures. In addition, a hash table provides fast data access and an added advantage of rapid updates.

• On the other hand, the primary drawback of using hashing technique for inserting and retrieving data
values is that it usually lacks locality and sequential retrieval by key. This makes insertion and retrieval of
data values even more random.

• All the more choosing an effective hash function is more an art than a science. It is not uncommon to (in
open-addressed hash tables) to create a poor hash function.
 Applications of Hashing
• Hash tables are widely used in situations where enormous amounts of data have to be accessed to quickly search
and retrieve information. A few typical examples where hashing is used are given below.

• Hashing is used for database indexing. Some DBMSs store a separate file known as indexes. When data has to be
retrieved from a file, the key information is first found in the appropriate index file which references the exact
record location of the data in the database file. This key information in the index file is often stored as a hashed
value.

• Hashing is used as symbol tables, for example, in Fortran language to store variable names. Hash tables speeds up
execution of the program as the references to variables can be looked up quickly.
 Applications of Hashing
• In many database systems, File and Directory hashing is used in high performance file systems.
Such systems use two complementary techniques to improve the performance of file access.
While one of these techniques is caching which saves information in memory, the other is hashing
which makes looking up the file location in memory much quicker than most other methods.
• Hash tables can be used to store massive amount of information for example, to store driver's
license records. Given the driver’s license number, hash tables help to quickly get information
about the driver (i.e. name, address, age)
• Hashing technique is for compiler symbol tables in C++. The compiler uses a symbol table to keep
a record of the user-defined symbols in a C++ program. Hashing facilitates the compiler to quickly
look up variable names and other attributes associated with symbols
• Hashing is also widely being used for internet search engines.