GE6252

BASIC ELECTRICAL AND

ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
Introduction

 Digital systems are concerned with digital signals

 Digital signals can take many forms
 Here we will concentrate on binary signals since
these are the most common form of digital signals
– can be used individually
 perhaps to represent a single binary quantity or the state of a
single switch
– can be used in combination
 to represent more complex quantities
Binary Quantities and Variables

 A binary quantity is one that can take only 2 states

S L
OPEN OFF
CLOSED ON

S L
0 0
1 1
A simple binary arrangement
A truth table
 A binary arrangement with two switches in series

L = S1 AND S2
 A binary arrangement with two switches in parallel

L = S1 OR S2
 Three switches in series

L = S1 AND S2 AND S3
 Three switches in parallel

L = S1 OR S2 OR S3
 A series/parallel arrangement

L = S1 AND (S2 OR S3)

 Representing an unknown network
Logic Gates

 The building blocks used to create digital circuits are

logic gates
 There are three elementary logic gates and a range
of other simple gates
 Each gate has its own logic symbol which allows
complex functions to be represented by a logic
diagram
 The function of each gate can be represented by a
truth table or using Boolean notation
 The AND gate
 The OR gate
 The NOT gate (or inverter)
 A logic buffer gate
 The NAND gate
 The NOR gate
 The Exclusive OR gate
Boolean Expressions

Boolean expressions are composed of

Literals – variables and their complements

Logical operations

Examples

F = A.B'.C + A'.B.C' + A.B.C + A'.B'.C'

literals logic operations


F = (A+B+C').(A'+B'+C).(A+B+C)

F = A.B'.C' + A.(B.C' + B'.C)
Boolean Expressions

Boolean expressions are realized using a network
(or combination) of logic gates.
 Each logic gate implements one of the logic
operations in the Boolean expression
 Each input to a logic gate represents one of the
literals in the Boolean expression
A
B

literals logic operations

f
 Logic Diagrams and Expressions
Truth Table Logic Equation
XYZ F X  Y Z
000 0 F X Y Z
001 1
010 0 Logic Diagram
011 0 X
100 1
101 1 Y F
110 1 Z
111 1
 Boolean equations, truth tables and logic diagrams
describe the same function!
 Truth tables are unique, but expressions and logic
diagrams are not. This gives flexibility in implementing
functions.
 The Exclusive NOR gate
Boolean Algebra

 Boolean Constants
– these are ‘0’ (false) and ‘1’ (true)
 Boolean Variables
– variables that can only take the vales ‘0’ or ‘1’
 Boolean Functions
– each of the logic functions (such as AND, OR and
NOT) are represented by symbols as described above
 Boolean Theorems
– a set of identities and laws – . text for details
 Boolean identities
AND Function OR Function NOT function
00=0 0+0=0 0 1
01=0 0+1=1 1 0
10=0 1+0=1 A A
11=1 1+1=1
A0=0 A+0=A
0A=0 0+A=A
A1=A A+1=1
1A=A 1+A=1
AA=A A+A=A
A  A 0 A  A 1
Boolean Algebra
Dual of a Boolean Expression
Boolean Operator Precedence

 The order of evaluation is:

1. Parentheses
2. NOT
3. AND
4. OR
 Consequence: Parentheses appear
around OR expressions
 Example: F = A(B + C)(C + D)
Boolean Algebraic Proof – Example 1
 A+A·B=A (Absorption Theorem)
Proof Steps Justification
=A+A·B
=A·1+A·B Identity element: A · 1 = A
= A · ( 1 + B) Distributive
=A·1 1+B=1
=A Identity element

 Our primary reason for doing proofs is to learn:

– Careful and efficient use of the identities and
theorems of Boolean algebra, and
– How to choose the appropriate identity or theorem to
apply to make forward progress, irrespective of the
application.
Boolean Algebraic Proof – Example 2
Useful Theorems
Truth Table to Verify DeMorgan’s
COMPLEMENTING FUNCTIONS
Expression Simplification
 Boolean laws
Commutative law Absorption law
AB BA A  AB A
A  B B  A A( A  B ) A

Distributive law De Morgan’s law

A(B  C ) AB  BC A  B A  B
A  BC ( A  B )( A  C ) A  B A  B

Associative law Note also

A(BC ) ( AB )C A  AB A  B
A  (B  C ) ( A  B )  C A( A  B ) AB
Combinational Logic

 Digital systems may be divided into two broad

categories:
– combinational logic
 where the outputs are determined solely by the current states
of the inputs
– sequential logic
 where the outputs are determined not only by the current
inputs but also by the sequence of inputs that led to the
current state
 Implementing a function from a Boolean expression
Example – Implement the function
X A  BC
 Implementing a function from a Boolean expression
Example – Implement the function
Y AB CD
 Generating a Boolean expression from a logic
diagram
Example –
Example (continued)
– work progressively from the inputs to the output adding
logic expressions to the output of each gate in turn
 Implementing a logic function from a description
Example –
The operation of the Exclusive OR gate can be stated as:
“The output should be true if either of its inputs are true,
but not if both inputs are true.”
This can be rephrased as:
“The output is true if A OR B is true,
AND if A AND B are NOT true.”
We can write this in Boolean notation as
X ( A  B)  ( AB)
Example (continued)
The logic function
X ( A  B)  ( AB)
can then be implemented as before
 Implementing a logic function from a truth table
Example –
Implement the function of the following truth table
A B C X – first write down a Boolean
0 0 0 0 expression for the output
0 0 1 1 – then implement as before
0 1 0 0 – in this case
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0
Example (continued)
The logic function X A B C  A B C  A B C
can then be implemented as before
 In some cases it is possible to simplify logic
expressions using the rules of Boolean algebra
Example –
X  ABC  A BC  AC  A C can be simplified to X BC  A
hence the following circuits are equivalent
Number Systems and Binary Arithmetic

 Most number systems are order dependent

 Decimal
123410 = (1  103) + (2  102) + (3  101) + (4  100)
 Binary
11012 = (1  23) + (1  22) + (0  21) + (1  20)
 Octal
1238 = (1  83) + (2  82) + (3  81)
 Hexadecimal
12316 = (1  163) + (2  162) + (3  161)
here we need 16 characters – 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F
 Number conversion
– conversion to decimal
 add up decimal equivalent of individual digits
Example –
Convert 110102 to decimal
110102 = (1  24) + (1  23) + (0  22) + (1  21) + (0  20)
= 16 + 8 + 0 + 2 + 0
= 2610
 Number conversion
– conversion from decimal
 repeatedly divide by the base and remember the remainder
Example –
Convert 2610 to binary
Number Remainder
Starting point 26
2 13 0
2 6 1
2 3 0
2 1 1
2 0 1
read number from this
end
=11010
 Binary arithmetic
– much simpler than decimal arithmetic
– can be performed by simple circuits, e.g. half adder
 More complex circuits can add digital words
 Similar circuits can be
constructed to perform
subtraction – . text
 More complex arithmetic
(such as multiplication and
division) can be done by
dedicated hardware but is
more often performed using a
microcomputer or complex
logic device
Numeric and Alphabetic Codes
Decimal Binary
 Binary code
0 0
– by far the most common 1 1
2 10
way of representing
3 11
numeric information 4 100
5 101
– has advantages of 6 110
simplicity and efficiency of 7 111
8 1000
storage 9 1001
10 1010
11 1011
12 1100
etc. etc.
Numeric and Alphabetic Codes
Decimal Binary
 Binary-coded decimal code
0 0
– formed by converting each 1 1
2 10
digit of a decimal number
3 11
individually into binary 4 100
5 101
– requires more digits than 6 110
conventional binary 7 111
8 1000
– has advantage of very easy 9 1001
conversion to/from decimal 10 10000
11 10001
– used where input and output 12 10010
etc. etc.
are in decimal form
Numeric and Alphabetic Codes

 ASCII code
– American Standard Code for Information Interchange
– an alphanumeric code
– each character represented by a 7-bit code
 gives 128 possible characters
 codes defined for upper and lower-case alphabetic characters,
digits 0 – 9, punctuation marks and various non-printing
control characters (such as carriage-return and backspace)
Numeric and Alphabetic Codes

 Error detecting and correcting codes

– adding redundant information into codes allows the
detection of transmission errors
 examples include the use of parity bits and checksums
– adding additional redundancy allows errors to be not
only detected but also corrected
 such techniques are used in CDs, mobile phones and
computer disks
Key Points
 It is common to represent the two states of a binary
variable by ‘0’ and ‘1’
 Logic circuits are usually implemented using logic gates
 Circuits in which the output is determined solely by the
current inputs are termed combinational logic circuits
 Logic functions can be described by truth tables or using
Boolean algebraic notation
 Binary digits may be combined to form digital words
 Digital words can be processed using binary arithmetic
 Several codes can be used to represent different forms of
information
COMBINATIONAL LOGIC
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