DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING

Filtering in the Frequency Domain

by
Dr. K. M. Bhurchandi
 The DFT of One - Variable
• Obtaining the DFT from the Continuous Transform of a
Sampled Function

sampled, continuous,
band-limited function FT periodic function
extending from -∞ to ∞ extending from -
∞ to ∞
• Equation of transform of sampled data in terms of sampled
function is given by:

• And we know
 The DFT of One - Variable

• Although fn is a discrete function, its Fourier is continuous and

infinitely periodic with period 1/ ΔT.

• Sampling one period is the basis for the DFT.

 The DFT of One - Variable
• To have M equally spaced samples of the transform taken
over the period μ = 0 to 1/ ΔT, consider following frequencies,

where, m = 0, 1, 2, ….., M-1

Substituting it in previous equation, we get DFT
equation:

Conversely, IDFT can be obtained by:

where, n = 0, 1, 2, …, N-1
 The DFT of One - Variable
• In a more intuitive approach, notations used will be
x & y - image coordinates variables
u & v – frequency variables
Thus, the above equations become:

w
here,
u = 0,
1, 2,
where,
…., x = 0, 1, 2, …, M-1
M-1
• Both the forward & inverse discrete transforms are infinitely
periodic with period M.
 Extension to Functions of Two Variables
• The 2-D Impulse and Its Sifting Property:
• The impulse of 2 continuous variables t & z is given by:
• &

• As in the 1D case, the 2D impulse exhibits the sifting property

under integration,

• More generally for an impulse located at coordniates (to, zo)

 Extension to Functions of Two Variables
• For discrete variables x & y, the 2D discrete impulse is defined
as:

• Its sifting property is:

• For an impulse located at coordinates (xo, yo)

 Extension to Functions of Two Variables
• Two-dimensional unit discrete impulse.
 The 2-D Continuous Fourier Transform Pair
• f(t, z) – continuous function of two variables, t & z.
• μ & γ – frequency variables define continuous
frequency domain.
• A 2-D function & its spectrum
 2-D Sampling and the 2-D Sampling Theorem
• 2-D impulse train is given by:

where, ΔT & ΔZ are separations between samples along t

& z axis.
 2-D Sampling and the 2-D Sampling Theorem
• Function f(t, z) is said to be band-limited if its Fourier
Transform is 0 outside a rectangle established by the intervals
[-μmax, μmax] and [-γmax, γmax].

• 2-Dimesional sampling theorem states that a continuous,

band limited function f(t, z) can be recovered with no error
from a set of its samples if the sampling intervals are

and
 Aliasing in Images
• 2-D Fourier Transform of oversampled & under-sampled band
limited function
 Aliasing in Images
• Two manifestations of aliasing in images:
– Spatial Aliasing & Temporal Aliasing

• Spatial Aliasing: It is due to under-sampling

• Temporal Aliasing: It is related to time intervals between

images in a sequence of images.
– E.g. wagon wheel effect (wheel appear to rotate
backwards)
 The 2-D DFT and Its Inverse
• 2-D Discrete Fourier Transform Pairs:

where, f(x, y) – digital image of size M x N.

u – 0, 1, 2, ….., M-1
v – 0, 1, 2, ….., N-1

where, F(u, v) – transform of f(x, y).

x – 0, 1, 2, ….., M-1
y – 0, 1, 2, …., N-1
 Properties of 2-D DFT
1) Relationships between Spatial & Frequency Intervals

• If a continuous function f(t, z) is sampled to form a digital

image, f(x, y) consisting of M x N samples in t & z resp.

• If ΔT & ΔZ denote the separations between samples, then,

separations between the corresponding discrete, frequency
domain variables are given by:

Δ𝑢 Δ𝑣
1
𝑀1Δ𝑇 𝑁
= =
&
Δ𝑍
 Problems on DFT
1 1
1) Let f(x, y) = 1
1 1
is image matrix. Then DFT(F) = ?

1 1
1 1 2
Sol:-

10 1 1 𝑓 0, 𝑦 = ,11
f(x, y) = x y1 0 1-
=> 𝑓
1 1 1 = ,11
1 1, 𝑦 1-
2 1 𝑁−1
1𝑦 = 𝑓 2, 𝑦 = ,11
1 0 1-
𝑓(𝑦)𝑒
Generally, F(v) =
−𝑗2𝜋𝑣𝑦/𝑁
𝑦 =𝑓(0,
Thus, F1(0, v) = 𝑁−1
0
𝑦)𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑣𝑦/𝑁
 𝑦 =𝑓(0,
F1(0, v) = 𝑁−1
F1(0, v) = 𝑓(0, 0)𝑒−𝑗2𝜋𝑣0/3 𝑓(0,
0 1)𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑣1/3 + 𝑓(0, 2)𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑣2/3
𝑦)𝑒−𝑗2𝜋𝑣𝑦/𝑁
+

For, v = 0: F1(0, 0) = 𝑓(0, 0)𝑒−𝑗2𝜋0∗0/3 + 𝑓(0, 1)𝑒−𝑗2𝜋0∗1/3 + 𝑓(0,

2)𝑒−𝑗2𝜋0∗2/3

For, v = 1: F1(0, 1) = 𝑓(0, 0)𝑒−𝑗2𝜋1∗0/3 + 𝑓(0, 1)𝑒−𝑗2𝜋1∗1/3 + 𝑓(0,

=1x1 + 1x1 + 1x1 = 3

2)𝑒−𝑗2𝜋1∗2/3
=1x1 + 1 x (-0.5000 - 0.8660i) + 1 x (-
0.5000 + 0.8660i)

For, v = 2: F1(0, 2) = 𝑓(0, 0)𝑒−𝑗2𝜋2∗0/3 + 𝑓(0, 1)𝑒−𝑗2𝜋2∗1/3 + 𝑓(0,

=0

2)𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋2∗2/3
Similarly, F1(1, v) = [3 0 0]; F1(2, v) = [3
& = 1 x 1 Thus, F = 3 0 0+0 1 x (-0.5000 + 0.8660i) + 1 x (-
0.5000 - 0.8660i) 3 0 0
1

=0
3 0 0
Now, applying transformation column-wise. 0];
So, F1(0, v) = [3 0 0];
Generally, F(u) = 𝑀−1 𝑥=
0
𝑓(𝑥)𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑢𝑥/𝑀

+ F1(1,(𝑥,
𝐹
𝑥=0
𝑀−1 1
F(u, 0) = F1 (0, 0)𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑢0/3 0)𝑒−𝑗2𝜋𝑢1/3 +F1(2,
0)𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑢𝑥/𝑀
Thus, F(u, 0) =
0)𝑒−𝑗2𝜋𝑢2/3

For, u = 0: F(0, 0) ==F31(0,

x 1 0)𝑒−𝑗2𝜋0∗0/3 +F1(1,+ 0)𝑒
3 x−𝑗2𝜋0∗1/3
+F1(2, 0)𝑒−𝑗2𝜋0∗2/3
1 + 3x1

For, u = 1: F(1, 0) = F1(0, 0)𝑒−𝑗2𝜋1∗0/3 +F1(1, 0)𝑒−𝑗2𝜋1∗1/3 +F1(2,

=9

0)𝑒−𝑗2𝜋1∗2/3
=0x1 + 0 x (-0.5000 - 0.8660i) + 0 x (-
0.5000 + 0.8660i)

For, u = 2: F(2, 0) = F1(0, 0)𝑒−𝑗2𝜋2∗0/3 +F1(1, 0)𝑒−𝑗2𝜋2∗1/3 +F1(2,

=0

0)𝑒−𝑗2𝜋2∗2/3
Thus, F = 0 0 0
=0x1 + 0 x (-0.5000 + 0.8660i) + 0 x (-

0 0 0
0.5000 - 0.8660i)
=0
9 0 0
So, F(u, 0) = [9 0 0]; Similarly, F(u, 1) = [0 0 0]; & F(u, 2) = [0 0 0];
 Problems on DFT
1 2 3
2) Let f(x, y) = 4 5 6 is image matrix.
7 8 9
Then DFT(F) = ?

Sol:- y 0 1 2

0 1 2 𝑓 0, 𝑦 = , 1 2
f(x, y) = x 3 3-
=> 𝑓
1 4 5 = ,45
6 1, 𝑦 6-
2 7 𝑁−18𝑦 = 𝑓 2, 𝑦 = , 7 8
9 0 9-
𝑓(𝑦)𝑒
Generally, F(v) =
−𝑗2𝜋𝑣𝑦/𝑁
𝑦 =𝑓(0,
Thus, F1(0, v) = 𝑁−1
0
𝑦)𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑣𝑦/𝑁
 𝑦 =𝑓(0,
1(0, v) = 𝑁−1
F1(0, v) = 𝑓(0, 0)𝑒 + 𝑓(0,
0 1)𝑒−𝑗2𝜋𝑣1/3 + 𝑓(0, 2)𝑒−𝑗2𝜋𝑣2/3
𝑦)𝑒−𝑗2𝜋𝑣𝑦/𝑁
F−𝑗2𝜋𝑣0/3

For, v = 0: F1(0, 0) = 𝑓(0, 0)𝑒−𝑗2𝜋0∗0/3 + 𝑓(0, 1)𝑒−𝑗2𝜋0∗1/3 + 𝑓(0,

2)𝑒−𝑗2𝜋0∗2/3
=1x1 + 2x1 + 3x1 =

For, v = 1: F1(0, 1) = 𝑓(0, 0)𝑒−𝑗2𝜋1∗0/3 + 𝑓(0, 1)𝑒−𝑗2𝜋1∗1/3 + 𝑓(0,

6

2)𝑒−𝑗2𝜋1∗2/3
=1x1 + 2 x (-0.5000 - 0.8660i) + 3 x
(-0.5000 + 0.8660i)

For, v = 2: F1(0, 2) = 𝑓(0, 0)𝑒−𝑗2𝜋2∗0/3 + 𝑓(0, 1)𝑒−𝑗2𝜋2∗1/3 + 𝑓(0,

= -1.5000 + 0.8660i

2)𝑒−𝑗2𝜋2∗2/3
= 16x 1 −1.5000 + 0.8660i −1.5000
+ 2 x (-0.5000
− 0.8660i+ 0.8660i) + 3 x
15 −1.5000
(-0.5000 - 0.8660i)
24 −1.5000
−1.5000 − 0.8660i
Thus, F1 = = -1.5000 +
- 0.8660i
+ 0.8660i −1.5000 − 0.8660i
0.8660i
Now, applying transformation column-wise.
So, F1(0, v) = [6 -1.5000 + 0.8660i -1.5000 - 0.8660i];
Similarly, F1(1, v) = [15 -1.5000 + 0.8660i -1.5000 -
0.8660i];
Generally, F(u) = 𝑀−1 𝑥=
0
𝑓(𝑥)𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑢𝑥/𝑀
𝑥=0
𝑀−1 𝐹 1
(𝑥,
F(u, 0) = F1 (0, 0)𝑒−𝑗2𝜋𝑢0/3 + F1(1, 0)𝑒−𝑗2𝜋𝑢1/3 +F1(2,
0)𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑢𝑥/𝑀
Thus, F(u, 0) =
0)𝑒−𝑗2𝜋𝑢2/3

For, u = 0: F(0, 0) ==F61(0,

x 1 0)𝑒 15 x 1 ++F1(1,
+ −𝑗2𝜋0∗0/3 24 x0)𝑒
1 −𝑗2𝜋0∗1/3
+F1(2,
u = 0)𝑒 1) = F1(0, 1)𝑒−𝑗2𝜋1∗0/3 +F1(1, 1)𝑒−𝑗2𝜋1∗1/3 +F1(2,
= 45
−𝑗2𝜋0∗2/3

1)𝑒−𝑗2𝜋1∗2/3
For, 1: F(0,

=6x1 + 15 x (-0.5000 - 0.8660i) + 24 x (-0.5000 +

0.8660i)

For, u = 2: F(0, 2) = F1(0, 2)𝑒−𝑗2𝜋2∗0/3 +F1(1, 2)𝑒−𝑗2𝜋2∗1/3 +F1(2,

= -13.5000 + 7.7940i

2)𝑒−𝑗2𝜋2∗2/3 45 −4.5 + −4.5 −

+ 15 x 2.59𝑖 2.59𝑖
0 0
Thus, F = = −13.5000
6x1 + 7.7940i (-0.5000 + 0.8660i) + 24 x (-0.5000 -

0 0
−13.5000 − 7.7940i
0.8660i)
= -13.5000 - 7.7940i
 0 1
3) Let f(x, y) = 0
1 0
is image matrix. Then DFT(F) = ?

1 y −1 0 1
0 1
Sol:-

0 −1 0 1
f(x, y) = x 0
0 1 0
1
1 0𝑦 =−𝑁 1 𝑓(𝑦)𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑣𝑦
Generally, F(v) = 𝑁/2
0 /2 /𝑁

𝑁/2
𝑦=−𝑁/ 𝑓(−1,
2
Thus, F1(-1, v) =
𝑦)𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑣𝑦/𝑁
F1(-1, v) = 𝑓(−1, −𝑗2𝜋𝑣(−1)
+ 𝑓(−1, −𝑗 2𝜋 𝑣0
+ 𝑓 −1,
𝑗2𝜋𝑣
− 3
/3 /3
−1)𝑒 0)𝑒 1 𝑒
1

&

F(u, -1) = F1 (−1, −1)𝑒−𝑗2𝜋𝑢(−1)/3 + F1(0, −1)𝑒−𝑗2𝜋𝑢0/3 +F1(1,

−1)𝑒−𝑗2𝜋𝑢1/3
4 −0.5 − −0.5 +
−0.5 − 0.866𝑖 0.866𝑖 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑒𝑓. (−1,
Then,
0.866𝑖 1 − 1.73𝑖 −2 −1)
F=

−0.5 + −2 1 + 1.73𝑖
−2 0.866𝑖
1
F = −2 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
1 4 (0, 0)
1
−2 1
−2
Symmetry Properties of 2D-DFT
Summary of DFT definitions
Summary of DFT definitions
Summary of DFT Pairs
Summary of DFT Pairs
 Summary of steps for filtering in Frequency
domain
1) Given an input image f(x, y) of size M x N, obtain the padding parameters
P & Q as 2M & 2N respectively.
2) Form a padded image, fp(x, y), of size P x Q be appending the necessary
number of zeros to f(x, y).
3) Multiply fp(x, y) by (-1)x+y to center its transform.
4) Compute the DFT, F(u, v), of the image from step 3.
5) Generate a real, symmetric filter function, H(u, v), of size P x Q with
center at coordinates (P/2, Q/2). Form the product G(u, v) = H(u, v)F(u, v)
using array multiplication; that is, G(i, k) = H(i, k)F(i, k).
6) Obtain the processed image: gp(x, y) = ,real*Ṫ-1[G(u, v)]]}(-1)x+y
where the real part is selected in order to ignore parasitic complex
components resulting from computational inaccuracies, and the
subscript p indicates that we are dealing with padded arrays.
7) Obtain the final processed result, g(x, y), by extracting the M x N region
from the top, left quadrant of gp(x, y).
Image smoothing using Frequency domain filters
• Ideal Lowpass Filters:
• A 2-D lowpass filter that passes without attenuation all
frequencies within a circle of radius D0 from the origin and
“cut off” all frequencies outside this circle is called an ideal

1,
lowpass filter (ILPF).
H 𝑢, 𝑣 = 𝑖𝑓 𝐷(𝑢, 𝑣) ≤ 𝐷
0, 𝑖𝑓 𝐷(𝑢, 𝑣) >0
𝐷0
Where, D0 - a positive constant
D(u, v) – distance between (u, v) in the frequency domain
and the center of the frequency rectangle; i.e.
D(u, v) = [(u – P/2)2 + (v – Q/2)2]1/2

Where P & Q are 2M & 2N resp.

Image smoothing using Frequency domain filters
Perspective plot
of an ILPF

Filter as image Filter radial

cross section
Image smoothing using Frequency domain filters
• Butterworth Lowpass Filters:
• The transfer function of a Butterworth lowpass filter (BLPF) of
order n, and with cutoff frequency at a distance D0 from the
origin, is defined as,

H 𝑢, 𝑣
1

=
𝐷
1 𝑢,𝑣 2𝑛

+
�0
�

where, D(u, v) = [(u – P/2)2 + (v – Q/2)2]1/2

Image smoothing using Frequency domain filters
Perspective
plot of BLPF

Radial cross
section of filter
Filter as image from order 1 - 4
Image smoothing using Frequency domain filters
• Spatial representation of BLPF of order 1, 2, 5 & 20 &
corresponding intensity profiles through the center of the
filter.
• Ringing increases as a function of filter order.
Image smoothing using Frequency domain filters
• Gaussian Lowpass Filters:
• Gaussian lowpass filters(GLPF) in two dimensions is given by
= 𝑒 −𝐷
𝐻
(𝑢,𝑣)/2σ
2

𝑢, 𝑣
2

where, σ – is measure of spread about the center.

• Let σ = D0, thus the filter can be expressed as:

𝐻
2

= 𝑒 −𝐷
2

where D0 is the𝑢, 𝑣 frequency

(𝑢,𝑣)/2𝐷 0
cutoff
Image smoothing using Frequency domain filters
Perspective
Plot of GLPF

Filter radial cross

Filter image section for diff D0
Image sharpening using Frequency domain filter
• A highpass filter is obtained from a given lowpass filter using
the equation

HHP(u, v) = 1 – HLP(u, v)

Where, HLP(u, v) – transfer function of the LPF

• Ideal Highpass Filter

0,
• A 2-D highpass filter is given by
H 𝑢, 𝑣 =
1, 𝑖𝑓 𝐷(𝑢, 𝑣) >
𝑖𝑓
𝐷0 𝐷(𝑢, 𝑣) ≤
𝐷0
Image sharpening using Frequency domain filter
IHPF

BHPF

GHPF
Image sharpening using Frequency domain filter
• Butterworth Highpass Filter
• A 2-D Butterworth highpass filter (BHPF) of order n and cutoff

H 𝑢, 𝑣
frequency D0 is defined as
1

=
1 𝐷 𝐷 2𝑛 0

+ 𝑢,𝑣

• Gaussian Highpass Filter

• The transfer function of the Gaussian highpass filter (GHPF)
with cutoff frequency locus of at a distance D0 from the center
of the frequency rectangle is given by

𝐻
2

= 1 − 𝑒 −𝐷
2

𝑢, 𝑣
(𝑢,𝑣)/2𝐷 0
 Laplacian in the frequency domain
• The Laplacian can be implemented in the frequency domain
using the filter
H(u, v) = -4π2(u2 + v2)

Or with respect to the center of the frequency rectangle, using

the filter
H(u, v) = -4π2D2(u, v)

Where, D(u, v) is the distance function.

 Laplacian in the frequency domain

𝛻2𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦= T − 1*H u, v F(u,

The Laplacian image is obtained as:

v)+

𝑔 𝑥, 𝑦= 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦+ 𝑐𝛻2𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)
Enhancement is achieved using the equation

• Here, c = -1, because, H(u, v) is negative

𝑔 𝑥, 𝑦= T − 1 *,1 + 4π2D2 u, v
• In frequency domain the above equation is written as:

-F(u, v)+
 Homomorphic Filtering
• According to Illumination-Reflectance model:
• An image f(x, y) can be expressed as the product of its
illumination, i(x, y), and reflectance, r(x, y), components:
f(x, y) = i(x, y)r(x, y)
• Since the Fourier Transform of a product is not the product of
he transforms:
• So, F*f(x, y)+ ≠ F*i(x, y)+ F[r(x, y)]

• However, if,
z(x, y) = ln f(x, y)
= ln i(x, y) + ln r(x, y)
Then,
F{z(x, y)} = F{ln f(x, y)}
= F{ln i(x, y)} + F{ln r(x, y)}
 Homomorphic Filtering
or
Z(u, v) = Fi(u, v) + Fr(u, v)
Where, Fi(u, v) and Fr(u, v) are the Fourier transforms of ln i(x, y)
& ln r(x, y) resp.

We can filter Z(u, v) using a filter H(u, v)

S(u, v) = H(u, v) Fi(u, v) + H(u, v) Fr(u, v)

The filtered image in spatial domain is

s(x, y) = T-1{S(u, v)}
= T-1{H(u, v) Fi(u, v)} + T-1{H(u,
v) Fr(u, v)}
= i’(x, y) + r’(x, y)

where, i’(x, y) = T-1{H(u, v) Fi(u, v)}

 Homomorphic Filtering
• In order to get the original image, we reverse the process,

g(x, y) = es(x, y)
= ei’(x, y)er’(x, y)
= i0(x, y)r0(x, y)

where, i0(x, y) = ei’(x, y) & r0(x, y) = er’(x, y) are the illumination and
reflectance components of the output (processed) image.
 Summary of steps in homomorphic filtering

• The illumination component of an image is characterized by

slow spatial variations, while the reflectance components
tend to vary abruptly.

• The low frequencies of DFT of Logarithm of an image are

associated with illumination and high frequencies with
relectance.
 Homomorphic Filtering

• Shows cross section of such a homomorphic filter H(u, v) that

affects low and high frequency components differently.
 Homomorphic Filtering
• If parameters γL & γH are chosen such that γL < 1 & γH > 1, the
filter attenuates low frequencies and amplifies high
frequencies.

• It results in simultaneous dynamic range compression and

contrast enhancement. (Highpass filter)

• Slightly modified Gaussian highpass filter yields the

𝐻 𝑢, 𝑣 =
function 2
2-
, 1 − 𝑒 −𝑐,𝐷 (𝑢,𝑣)/𝐷0
γH − γcontrols
where, L
] + γL of the
the sharpness of the slope
function as it transitions between γL & γH