BITH101/BSIT101 FUNDAMENTALS

OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
3. OPERATING SYSTEMS
3.1 Introduction to OS
3.2 Functions of Operating Systems
3.3 Types of Operating Systems
3.4 Overview of Popular Operating Systems
3.5 User Interfaces
Introduction to Operating
Systems

An operating system (OS) is system software that
manages computer hardware, software resources,
and provides common services for computer
programs.

It acts as an intermediary between users and the
computer hardware, making it possible for users to
interact with the computer system in a convenient
and efficient manner.
Definition and Purpose

Definition: An operating system is a collection of
software that manages computer hardware resources
and provides common services for computer programs.

Primary Purpose: To provide an environment in which
a user can execute programs in a convenient and
efficient manner.

Historical Context: Early computers had no operating
systems; programmers interacted directly with the
hardware through machine language.
Functions of Operating Systems

Operating systems perform several crucial
functions to manage hardware resources effectively
and provide a user-friendly environment.
Process Management

Process Creation and Termination: Starting and ending
programs

Process Scheduling: Determining which processes run when

Process Synchronization: Coordinating processes that share
resources

Inter-Process Communication (IPC): Allowing processes
to exchange information

Deadlock Handling: Preventing or resolving situations
where processes are waiting indefinitely
Memory Management

Memory Allocation and Deallocation: Assigning memory to
processes when needed and reclaiming it when finished

Virtual Memory: Creating the illusion of more physical
memory using disk space

Address Translation: Converting virtual addresses to physical
addresses

Memory Protection: Ensuring processes only access their
allocated memory

Swapping: Moving processes between main memory and
secondary storage
File System Management

File Creation and Deletion: Managing file lifecycle

Directory Management: Organising files in a
hierarchical structure

File Access Control: Enforcing permissions and security

File Manipulation: Reading, writing, and modifying files

Backup and Recovery: Protecting against data loss
Device Management

Device Drivers: Software interfaces to hardware devices

Device Allocation: Managing which process can use a
device

Spooling: Buffering data for devices like printers

Device Communication: Transferring data between
devices and the system

Performance Optimisation: Efficient use of I/O devices
User Interface Provision

The operating system is responsible for providing a
platform of interaction between the user and the
computer system
Security and Protection

User Authentication: Verifying user identities

Authorisation: Determining what resources users
can access

Encryption: Protecting data confidentiality

Auditing: Tracking system activities

Malware Protection: Defending against viruses
and other threats
Types of Operating Systems

Operating systems can be categorised based on
various characteristics such as processing
capabilities, user interaction, and design
philosophy.
Based on Processing Capabilities
1. Single-User, Single-Tasking OS

Designed for one user running one program at a
time

Simple design and resource management

Example: Early MS-DOS
Single-User, Multi-Tasking OS

Allows one user to run multiple programs
simultaneously

Time-sharing between different applications

Examples: Windows, macOS
Multi-User OS

Supports multiple users accessing the system
simultaneously

Requires complex resource allocation and security

Examples: UNIX, Linux, mainframe OS
Distributed OS

Manages a group of distinct computers, making
them appear as a single computer

Shares computational power and resources across
multiple machines

Examples: Amoeba, Mach
Network OS

Specialised for managing network resources

Provides services across a computer network

Examples: Novell NetWare, Windows Server
Real-Time OS (RTOS)

Designed for time-critical applications

Guarantees response within specific time constraints
Types:

Hard Real-Time: Absolute deadlines that cannot be
missed

Soft Real-Time: Can tolerate some missed deadlines

Examples: VxWorks, QNX, RTLinux
Based on User Interface
Command Line Interface (CLI) OS

Text-based interface where users type commands

Efficient for experienced users and scripting

Examples: UNIX shell, MS-DOS
Graphical User Interface (GUI)
OS

Visual interface with windows, icons, menus, and
pointers

More intuitive for beginners

Examples: Windows, macOS, most modern Linux
distributions
Natural User Interface (NUI) OS

Based on human abilities like touch, speech,
gestures

Minimises the learning curve

Examples: iOS, Android, Windows with
touch/voice capabilities
Based on Architecture
Monolithic OS

All OS services operate in kernel space

Fast performance but less modular

Examples: Traditional UNIX, Linux kernel
Microkernel OS

Minimal kernel with basic functions

Most services run in user space

More stable but potentially slower

Examples: MINIX, QNX
Hybrid OS

Combines monolithic and microkernel approaches

Balances performance and modularity

Examples: Windows NT architecture,
macOS/Darwin
Exokernel OS

Provides minimal hardware protection

Allows applications direct control of resources

Research-oriented design
Virtual Machine OS

Creates multiple virtual machines on single
hardware

Each VM can run its own operating system

Examples: VMware ESXi, Microsoft Hyper-V
Overview of Popular Operating
Systems

A. Desktop/Laptop Operating Systems

Microsoft Windows

History: Evolved from MS-DOS to Windows 1.0 (1985) to
Windows 11 (2021)

Architecture: Hybrid kernel architecture

Market Position: Dominant desktop OS with ~75% market share

Strengths: Software compatibility, gaming support, corporate
adoption

Weaknesses: Security concerns, resource requirements
macOS

History: Based on Unix, released as Mac OS X in 2001,
rebranded as macOS in 2016

Architecture: Hybrid kernel (XNU) based on Mach and BSD

Market Position: ~15% desktop market share, exclusive to
Apple hardware

Strengths: User interface design, stability, security,
integration with Apple ecosystem

Weaknesses: Limited hardware compatibility, higher cost of
entry
Linux Distributions

History: Created by Linus Torvalds in 1991, developed by open-source
community

Architecture: Monolithic kernel

Market Position: ~2-3% desktop market share, dominant in servers

Common Distributions:
Ubuntu: User-friendly, general-purpose
Fedora: Cutting-edge features, sponsored by Red Hat
Debian: Stability and free software principles
Arch Linux: Minimalist, rolling release model

Strengths: Open source, customisability, security, performance

Weaknesses: Learning curve, software compatibility issues
B. Mobile Operating Systems
Android

Developer: Google (based on Linux kernel)

Market Position: ~70% global mobile OS market
share

Features: Open ecosystem, highly customisable,
wide hardware support

Architecture: Modified Linux kernel with Java-
based application framework
iOS

Developer: Apple

Market Position: ~25% global mobile OS market
share

Features: Closed ecosystem, emphasis on security
and user experience

Architecture: Darwin kernel (similar to macOS),
exclusive to Apple devices
Other Mobile OS

HarmonyOS: Developed by Huawei as an
alternative to Android

KaiOS: Focused on feature phones and emerging
markets
C. Server Operating Systems
1. Linux Server Distributions

Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL): Commercial
support, enterprise features

Ubuntu Server: Easy deployment, regular updates

SUSE Linux Enterprise: European focus,
enterprise support

Market Position: Dominant in web servers, cloud
infrastructure
Windows Server

History: Evolved from Windows NT, latest version
Windows Server 2022

Features: Active Directory, .NET framework,
integration with Microsoft services

Market Position: Strong in corporate
environments, authentication servers
FreeBSD and Other UNIX-like
Systems

Features: Stability, security, performance

Use Cases: Web servers, firewalls, network
appliances
Embedded Operating Systems
1. Real-Time Operating Systems (RTOS)

FreeRTOS: Open-source RTOS for
microcontrollers and small processors

VxWorks: Commercial RTOS for embedded
systems

QNX: Microkernel RTOS used in automotive and
industrial systems
Embedded Linux

Yocto Project: Framework for creating custom
embedded Linux distributions

OpenWrt: Specialised for networking devices

Android (embedded variant): Used in smart TVs,
automotive systems
User Interfaces in Operating
Systems

User interfaces determine how users interact with
the operating system and applications.
A. Command Line Interface
(CLI)
Characteristics

Text-based input and output

Commands entered as text strings

Output displayed as text

Often keyboard-only interaction
 Advantages

Precise control over system operations

Efficient for repetitive tasks through scripting

Requires fewer system resources

Remote access friendly

Automation capabilities
 Disadvantages

Steeper learning curve

Requires memorisation of commands

Less intuitive for new users

Limited visual feedback
 Examples

Windows Command Prompt and PowerShell

Unix/Linux Shells: Bash, Zsh, Fish

macOS Terminal
B. Graphical User Interface (GUI)
Characteristics

Visual representation of programs and files

Interaction through graphical elements

WIMP paradigm (Windows, Icons, Menus, Pointer)

Event-driven programming model
 Advantages

Intuitive and easier to learn

Visual feedback for actions

Multitasking visualisation

Easier discovery of features
 Disadvantages

Requires more system resources

Sometimes less efficient for power users

More difficult to automate

Can be slower for repetitive tasks
 Examples

Windows: Windows Shell, Explorer

macOS: Aqua interface

Linux: Various desktop environments:
GNOME: Focus on simplicity and usability
KDE Plasma: Feature-rich and customizable
Xfce: Lightweight and efficient
MATE: Traditional desktop paradigm
Natural User Interface (NUI)
Characteristics

Based on natural human behaviours

Minimal learning curve

Often multimodal (combining methods)

Adaptive to user context
 Types of NUI

Touch-based: Direct manipulation through touch
gestures

Voice-based: Speech recognition and voice
commands

Gesture-based: Body movements and hand gestures

Augmented Reality: Overlaying digital content on
the real world
 Advantages

Intuitive interaction

Accessibility benefits

Can be more engaging

Hands-free operation (voice/gesture)
 Disadvantages

Precision can be limited

Privacy concerns (voice/video capture)

Environmental constraints

Still evolving technology
 Examples

Touch interfaces: iOS, Android

Voice assistants: Siri, Google Assistant, Cortana

Gesture systems: Microsoft Kinect, VR interfaces
Bibliography for Reference and
Further Study
Arpaci-Dusseau, R. H., & Arpaci-Dusseau, A. C. (2018). Operating Systems: Three Easy Pieces.
Arpaci-Dusseau Books.
Bach, M. J. (1986). The Design of the UNIX Operating System. Prentice Hall.
Bic, L. F., & Shaw, A. C. (2023). Operating Systems Principles. Prentice Hall.
Bovet, D. P., & Cesati, M. (2021). Understanding the Linux Kernel. O'Reilly Media.
Dhamdhere, D. M. (2012). Operating Systems: A Concept-Based Approach. McGraw-Hill Education.
Deitel, H. M., Deitel, P. J., & Choffnes, D. R. (2018). Operating Systems. Pearson.
Love, R. (2013). Linux Kernel Development. Addison-Wesley Professional.
Russinovich, M. E., Solomon, D. A., & Ionescu, A. (2022). Windows Internals. Microsoft Press.
Silberschatz, A., Galvin, P. B., & Gagne, G. (2022). Operating System Concepts. Wiley.
Stallings, W. (2023). Operating Systems: Internals and Design Principles. Pearson.
Tanenbaum, A. S., & Bos, H. (2014). Modern Operating Systems. Pearson.
Vahalia, U. (1996). UNIX Internals: The New Frontiers. Prentice Hall
 This work is licensed under
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It makes use of the works of
Kelly Loves Whales and Nick Merritt.