BOOLEAN

ALGEBRA AND
LOGIC
SIMPLIFICATION
CHAPTER OUTLINE
Boolean Operations and Expressions

Laws and Rules of Boolean Algebra

DeMorgan’s Theorems
Boolean Analysis of Logic Circuits
 Logic Simplification Using Boolean Algebra
 Standard Forms of Boolean Expressions
 Boolean Expressions and Truth Tables
The Karnaugh Map
 Karnaugh Map SOP Minimization

 Karnaugh Map POS Minimization

4.1BOOLEAN OPERATIONS
AND EXPRESSIONS
Boolean algebra is the mathematics of digital logic.

In the last chapter, Boolean operations and expressions in terms of their relationship to NOT,
AND, OR, NAND, and NOR gates were introduced.

Variable, complement, and literal are terms used in Boolean algebra.

A variable is a symbol (usually an italic uppercase letter or word) used to represent an action,
a condition, or data. Any single variable can have only a 1 or a 0 value.

 The complement is the inverse of a variable and is indicated by a bar over the variable
(overbar). For example, the complement of the variable A is A. If A = 1, then A = 0. If A = 0,
then A = 1. The complement of the variable A is read as “not A” or “A bar.” Sometimes a
prime symbol rather than an overbar is used to denote the complement of a variable;

A literal is a variable or the complement of a variable.

4.1BOOLEAN OPERATIONS
AND
BooleanEXPRESSIONS
Addition
Recall from Chapter 3 that Boolean addition is equivalent to the OR operation. The basic
rules are illustrated with their relation to the OR gate in Figure 4 –1

In Boolean algebra, a sum term is a sum of literals. In logic circuits, a sum term is pro-
duced by an OR operation with no AND operations involved. Some examples of sum terms
are A + B, A + B, A + B + C, and A + B + C + D.
A sum term is equal to 1 when one or more of the literals in the term are 1. A sum term is
equal to 0 only if each of the literals is 0.
4.1 BOOLEAN OPERATIONS
AND EXPRESSIONS
Boolean Multiplication
Also recall from Chapter 3 that Boolean multiplication is equivalent to the AND operation.
The basic rules are illustrated with their relation to the AND gate in Figure 4–2.
In Boolean algebra, a product term is the product of literals. In logic circuits, a product
term is produced by an AND operation with no OR operations involved. Some examples of
product terms are AB, AB, ABC, and ABCD.
A product term is equal to 1 only if each of the literals in the term is 1. A product term is
equal to 0 when one or more of the literals are 0.
4.2 LAWS AND RULES OF
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
Commutative Laws
The commutative law of addition for two variables is written as
A+ B= B+ A
This law states that the order in which the variables are ORed makes no difference. Remember,
in Boolean algebra as applied to logic circuits, addition and the OR operation are the same.
Figure 4–3 illustrates the commutative law as applied to the OR gate

 The commutative law of multiplication for two variables is

 AB = BA Equation 4–2
This law states that the order in which the variables are ANDed makes no difference. Figure
4–4 illustrates this law as applied to the AND gate.
4.2 LAWS AND RULES OF
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
Associative Laws
The associative law of addition is written as follows for three variables:
 A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C
 This law states that when ORing more than two variables, the result is the same
regardless of the grouping of the variables. Figure 4–5 illustrates this law as applied
to 2-input OR gates.

 The associative law of multiplication is written as follows for three variables:

A(BC) = (AB)C Equation 4–4
This law states that it makes no difference in what order the variables are grouped when AND-
ing more than two variables. Figure 4–6 illustrates this law as applied to 2-input AND gates.
4.2 LAWS AND RULES OF
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
Distributive Law
The distributive law is written for three variables as follows:
A(B + C) = AB + AC

 This law states that ORing two or more variables and then ANDing the result
with a single variable is equivalent to ANDing the single variable with each of
the two or more variables and then ORing the products.
 The distributive law also expresses the process of factoring in which the
common variable A is factored out of the product terms,
4.2 LAWS AND RULES OF
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
Rules of Boolean Algebra

Rule 1: A variable ORed with 0 is always equal to the variable. If the input
variable A is 1, the output variable X is 1, which is equal to A. If A is 0, the output is 0, which
is also equal to A.
4.2 LAWS AND RULES OF
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
Rules of Boolean Algebra
Rule 2: A variable ORed with 1 is always equal to 1. A 1 on an input to
an OR gate produces a 1 on the output, regardless of the value of the variable on the
other input.

Rule 3: A variable ANDed with 0 is always equal to 0. Any time one input to
an AND gate is 0, the output is 0, regardless of the value of the variable on the other input.

Rule 4: A variable ANDed with 1 is always equal to the variable. If A is 0, the output
of the AND gate is 0. If A is 1, the output of the AND gate is 1 because both inputs are now 1s.
4.2 LAWS AND RULES OF
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
Rules of Boolean Algebra
Rule 5: A variable ORed with itself is always equal to the variable. If A is 0, then
0 + 0 0; and if A is 1, then 1 + 1 1

Rule 6: A variable ORed with its complement is always equal to 1. If A is 0,

then 0 + 0 = 0 + 1 = 1. If A is 1, then 1 + 1 = 1 + 0 = 1.

Rule 7: A variable ANDed with itself is always equal to the variable. If

A = 0, then 0 0 0; and if A = 1, then 1 1
4.2 LAWS AND RULES OF
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
Rules of Boolean Algebra
Rule 8: A variable ANDed with its complement is always equal to 0. Either A or
A will always be 0; and when a 0 is applied to the input of an AND gate, the output will be 0
also. Figure 4–15 illustrates this rule.

Rule 9: The double complement of a variable is always equal to the variable. If

you start with the variable A and complement (invert) it once, you get A. If you then take A
and complement (invert) it, you get A, which is the original variable.
4.2 LAWS AND RULES OF
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
Rules of Boolean Algebra
Rule 10: This rule can be proved by applying the distributive law, rule

The proof is shown in Table 4–2, which shows the truth table and the resulting logic
circuit simplification.
4.2 LAWS AND RULES OF
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
Rules of Boolean Algebra
 Rule 11: This rule can be proved as follows:
4.2 LAWS AND RULES OF
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
Rules of Boolean Algebra
4.3 DEMORGAN’S THEOREM
DeMorgan’s first theorem is stated as follows
DeMorgan’s first theorem is stated as follows:
The complement of a product of variables is equal to the sum of the complements of the variables.

Stated another way,

The complement of two or more ANDed variables is equivalent to the OR of the complements of the individual variables.

The formula for expressing this theorem for two variables is

DeMorgan’s second theorem is stated as follows:

 The complement of a sum of variables is equal to the product of the complements of the variables.

The formula for expressing this theorem for two variables is:
4.3 DEMORGAN’S THEOREM
 4.3 DEMORGAN’S THEOREM
DeMorgan’s first theorem is stated as follows
So if you can apply DeMorgan’s theorem for two variables as stated by
 4.3 DEMORGAN’S THEOREM
Applying DeMorgan’s Theorems
The following procedure illustrates the application of DeMorgan’s theorems and Boolean algebra to the
specific expression
 4.4 BOOLEAN ANALYSIS OF
LOGIC CIRCUITS
Boolean Expression for a Logic Circuit
To derive the Boolean expression for a given combinational logic circuit, begin at the left-most
inputs and work toward the final output, writing the expression for each gate.
 For the example circuit in Figure below, the Boolean expression is determined in the following three
steps:
1.The expression for the left-most AND gate with inputs C and D is CD.
2.The output of the left-most AND gate is one of the inputs to the OR gate and B is the other input.
Therefore, the expression for the OR gate is B + CD.
3.The output of the OR gate is one of the inputs to the right-most AND gate and A is the other input.
Therefore, the expression for this AND gate is A(B + CD), which is the final output expression for
the entire circuit.
 4.4 BOOLEAN ANALYSIS OF
LOGIC CIRCUITS
Constructing a Truth Table for a Logic Circuit
Evaluating the Expression
 To evaluate the expression A(B + CD), first find the values of the variables that make the
expression equal to 1, using the rules for Boolean addition and multiplication.
In this case, the expression equals 1 only if A = 1 and B + CD = 1 because
 4.4 BOOLEAN ANALYSIS OF
LOGIC CIRCUITS
Putting the Results in Truth Table Format
The first step is to list the sixteen input variable combinations of 1s and 0s in a
binary sequence as shown in Table below. Next, place a 1 in the output column
for each combination of input variables that was determined in the evaluation.
Finally, place a 0 in the output column for all other combinations of input
variables. These results are shown in the truth table in Table below .
4.5 LOGIC SIMPLIFICATION USING
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
A logic expression can be reduced to its simplest form
or changed to a more convenient form to implement the
expression most efficiently using Boolean algebra.
 The approach taken in this section is to use the basic
laws, rules, and theorems of Boolean algebra to
manipulate and simplify an expression.
 4.5 LOGIC SIMPLIFICATION USING

BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
Using Boolean algebra techniques, simplify this expression:
 4.5 LOGIC SIMPLIFICATION USING
BOOLEAN
Figure ALGEBRA
below shows that the simplification process in the above Example has
significantly reduced the number of logic gates required to implement the
expression.
 Part (a) shows that five gates are required to implement the expression in its
original form; however, only two gates are needed for the simplified expression,
shown in part (b).
It is important to realize that these two gate circuits are equivalent. That is, for any
combination of levels on the A, B, and C inputs, you get the same output from either
circuit.
 4.6 STANDARD FORMS OF
BOOLEAN
 Boolean EXPRESSIONS
expressions, regardless of their form, can be converted into either of two
standard forms: the sum-of-products form(SOP) or the product-of-sums
form(POS).
 Standardization makes the evaluation, simplification, and implementation of
Boolean expressions much more systematic and easier.

The Sum-of-Products (SOP) Form

 When two or more product terms are summed by Boolean addition, the resulting expression is a
sum-of-products (SOP). Some examples are
 4.6 STANDARD FORMS OF
BOOLEAN
The Sum-of-Products (SOP)EXPRESSIONS
Form
SOP expression can contain a single-variable term, as in A + ABC + BCD.

In an SOP expression, a single overbar cannot extend over more than one variable;
however, more than one variable in a term can have an overbar.
For example, an SOP expression can have the term ABC but not ABC.
 THE KARNAUGH MAP(K-MAP)
Presents all of the possible values of input variables and the resulting output for
each value.
Instead of being organized into columns and rows like a truth table, the Karnaugh
map is an array of cells in which each cell represents a binary value of the input
variables.
 The cells are arranged in a way so that simplification of a given expression is
simply a matter of properly grouping the cells.
Karnaugh maps can be used for expressions with two, three, four, and five
variables, but we will discuss only 3-variable and 4-variable situations to illustrate
the principles.
 The number of cells in a Karnaugh map, as well as the number of rows in a truth table,
is equal to the total number of possible input variable combinations.

 For three variables, the number of cells is 23 = 8. For four variables, the number of cells is 24 =
 THE KARNAUGH MAP(K-MAP)
The 3-Variable Karnaugh Map
The 3-variable Karnaugh map is an array of eight cells, as shown in
Figure below. In this case, A, B, and C are used for the variables although
other letters could be used.
Binary values of A and B are along the left side (notice the sequence)
and the values of C are across the top.

The value of a given cell is the binary values of A and B at the left in the
same row combined with the value of C at the top in the same column.
 THE KARNAUGH MAP(K-MAP)
The 3-Variable Karnaugh Map
The 4-variable Karnaugh map is an array of sixteen cells, as shown
in Figure bellow. Binary values of A and B are along the left side
and the values of C and D are across the top.

 The value of a given cell is the binary values of A and B at the left
in the same row combined with the binary values of C and D at
the top in the same column.
 THE KARNAUGH MAP(K-MAP)
The 3-Variable Karnaugh Map
The 4-variable Karnaugh map is an array of sixteen cells, as shown
in Figure bellow. Binary values of A and B are along the left side
and the values of C and D are across the top.

 The value of a given cell is the binary values of A and B at the left
in the same row combined with the binary values of C and D at
the top in the same column.