Chapter 1:

Introduction
• Data: Known facts that can be recorded
and that have implicit meaning
• Information:-processing of data.

• Data Base:- Collection of related data.

• .Ex. the names, telephone numbers and
addresses of all the people you know.
Database are organized by fields, records
and files
Benefits of database approach(Data base system)
over file system
• Redundancy can be reduced
• Inconsistency can be avoided
• Data can be shared
• Standards can be enforced
• Security restrictions can be applied
• Integrity & quality can be maintained
• Data independence can be provided
• Backup and Recovery.
• Data retrieval become efficient.
• Concurrency control.
• Transactional Problem can be removed.
• Economic on scale
 Database Applications:

– Banking: all transactions

– Airlines: reservations, schedules
– Universities: registration, grades
– Sales: customers, products, purchases
– Manufacturing: production, inventory, orders,
supply chain
– Human resources: employee records, salaries,
tax deductions
• Databases touch all aspects of our lives
 COMPONENTS OF
DATABASE SYSTEM
• A database system is composed of
four components;
• • Data
• • Hardware
• • Software
• • Users
• . Data -. A data is known as the rowfact which is stored
in computers memory and used by the user.

• Data may be of different types.

• • User Data - It consists of a table(s) of data called
Relation(s) where Column(s) are called fields of
attributes and rows are called Records for tables. A
Relation must be structured properly.

• • Metadata - A description of the structure of the

database is known as Metadata. It basically means
"data about data". System Tables store the Metadata
which includes.
• - Number of Tables and Table Names
• - Number of fields and field Names
• - Primary Key Fields

• • Application Metadata - It stores the structure and

format of Queries, reports and other applications
components. '
• 2. Hardware - The hardware consists of the secondary
storage devices such as magnetic disks (hard disk, zip disk,
floppy disks), optical disks (CD-ROM), magnetic tapes etc. on
which data is stored together with the Input/Output devices
(mouse, keyboard, printers), processors, main memory etc.
which are used for storing and retrieving the data in a fast
and efficient manner.

• 3. Software - The Software part consists of DBMS which

acts as a bridge between the user and the database or
in other words, software that interacts with the users,
application programs, and database and files system of
a particular storage media (hard disk, magnetic tapes
etc.) to insert, update, delete and retrieve data. For
performing these operations such as insertion, deletion
and updation we can either use the Query Languages
like SQL, QUEL, Gupta SQL or application softwares
such as Visual 3asic, Developer etc.
• 4. Users - Users are those persons who
need the information from the database
to carry out their primary business
responsibilities i.e. Personnel, Staff,
Clerical, Managers, Executives etc. On
the basis of the job and requirements
made by them they are provided
access to the database totally or
partially.
• The various types of users which can
access the database are:-
• • Database Administrators (DBA)
• • Database Designers
• • End Users
• • Application Programmers
 Disadvantage of
Database system
• Complexity increase
• Additional cost of hardware
• Cost of conversion
• Need of additional and specialized
manpower
• Need for backup and recovery.
• More installation and management
cost
 DBMS
• Database Management System
(DBMS): A software package/
system to facilitate the creation
and maintenance of a
computerized database
 Typical DBMS
Functionality
• Define a database : in terms of data
types, structures and constraints
• Construct or Load the Database on a
secondary storage medium
• Manipulating the database : querying,
generating reports, insertions, deletions and
modifications to its content
• Concurrent Processing and Sharing by a set
of users and programs – yet, keeping all
data valid and consistent
 Typical DBMS
Functionality
Other features:
– Protection or Security measures to
prevent unauthorized access
– “Presentation and Visualization of
data
Component of DBMS
• DATA DEFINATION LANGUAGE (DDL)

• DATA MANIPULATION LANGUAGE(DML)

• SOFTWARE FOR CONTROLLED ACCESS

OF DATABASE
Main Characteristics of the Database
Approach

• Self-describing nature of a database system:

A DBMS catalog stores the description of
the database. The description is called
meta-data). This allows the DBMS software
to work with different databases.
• Insulation between programs and data:
Called program-data independence.
Allows changing data storage structures and
operations without having to change the
DBMS access programs.
 Contd…

• Data Abstraction: A data model is

used to hide storage details and
present the users with a conceptual
view of the database.
• Support of multiple views of the
data: Each user may see a
different view of the database, which
describes only the data of interest
to that user.
 Contd..

• Sharing of data and multiuser transaction

processing : allowing a set of concurrent users
to retrieve and to update the database.
Concurrency control within the DBMS
guarantees that each transaction is correctly
executed or completely aborted. OLTP (Online
Transaction Processing) is a major part of
database applications.
 Database Users
Users may be divided into those who
actually use and control the content
(called “Actors on the Scene”) and
those who enable the database to
be developed and the DBMS
software to be designed and
implemented (called “Workers
Behind the Scene”).
 Actors on the scene

– Database administrators: responsible for

– Deciding the conceptual schema or content of Db.
– Deciding the internal Schema of structure of
physical storage.
– Deciding users.
– Deciding userview(external schema)
– Granting of authorities.
– Deciding constraints
– Security.
– Monitoring the performance.
– Backup .
 Contd..

– End-users: they use the data for

queries, reports and some of them
actually update the database
content.
 Categories of End-
users

• Casual : access database occasionally

when needed
• Naïve or Parametric : they make up a
large section of the end-user population.
They use previously well-defined functions
in the form of “canned transactions”
against the database. Examples are bank-
tellers or reservation clerks who do this
activity for an entire shift of operations.
 Contd..
• Sophisticated : these include business
analysts, scientists, engineers, others
thoroughly familiar with the system
capabilities. Many use tools in the form of
software packages that work closely with the
stored database.
• Stand-alone : mostly maintain personal
databases using ready-to-use packaged
applications. An example is a tax program
user that creates his or her own internal
database.
 Worker Behind The
Scene
• DBMS Designer & Implementers.

• Tool Developers

• Operators & maintenance Personal

 DBMS system
designers and
implementer
• DBMS system designers and implementer s are
persons who design and implement the DBMS
modules and interfaces as a software package. A
DBMS is a complex software system that consists of
many components, including components for
implementing the catalog, query language,
interface processors, data access, concurrency
control, recovery, and security. The DBMS must
interface with other system software, such as the
operating system and compilers for various
programming languages.
Tool developers & Operators
and maintenance personnel
• Tool developers design and implement tools
—the software packages that facilitate
database modeling and design , and improve d
performance. Tools are optional packages that
are often purchased separately. They include
packages for database design, performance
monitoring, natural language or graphical
interfaces, prototyping, simulation, and test
data generation.
• Operators and maintenance personnel (the
system administration personnel) are
responsible for the actual running and
maintenance of the hardware and software
 Advantages of Using
the Database Approach
• Controlling redundancy in data storage
and in development and maintenance
efforts.
• Sharing of data among multiple users.
• Restricting unauthorized access to
data.
• Providing Storage Structures for
efficient
 Contd..
• Providing backup and recovery services.
• Providing multiple interfaces to different
classes of users.
• Representing complex relationships
among data.
• Enforcing integrity constraints on the
database.
• Drawing Inferences and Actions using
rules
Additional Implications of
Using the Database
Approach
• Potential for enforcing standards: this is
very crucial for the success of database
applications in large organizations
Standards refer to data item names,
display formats, screens, report
structures, meta-data (description of data)
etc.
• Reduced application development time:
incremental time to add each new
application is reduced.
 Contd..
• Flexibility to change data structures: database
structure may evolve as new requirements
are defined.
• Availability of up-to-date information – very
important for on-line transaction systems such
as airline, hotel, car reservations.
• Economies of scale: by consolidating data and
applications across departments wasteful
overlap of resources and personnel can be
avoided.
Historical Development
of Database
Technology
• Early Database Applications: The
Hierarchical and Network Models were
introduced in mid 1960’s and dominated during
the seventies. A bulk of the worldwide database
processing still occurs using these models.
• Relational Model based Systems: The model
that was originally introduced in 1970 was
heavily researched and experimented with in
IBM and the universities. Relational DBMS
Products emerged in the 1980’s.
 Contd..
• Object-oriented applications: OODBMSs
were introduced in late 1980’s and early
1990’s to cater to the need of complex data
processing in CAD and other applications.
Their use has not taken off much.
• Data on the Web and E-commerce
Applications: Web contains data in HTML
(Hypertext markup language) with links
among pages. This has given rise to a new
set of applications and E-commerce is using
new standards like XML (eXtended Markup
Language).
 When not to use a
DBMS
• Main inhibitors (costs) of using a DBMS:
– High initial investment and possible need for
additional hardware.
– Overhead for providing generality, security,
concurrency control, recovery, and integrity
functions.
• When a DBMS may be unnecessary:
– If the database and applications are simple, well
defined, and not expected to change.
– If there are stringent real-time requirements that
may not be met because of DBMS overhead.
– If access to data by multiple users is not
 Contd..
• When no DBMS may suffice:
– If the database system is not able to
handle the complexity of data
because of modeling limitations
– If the database users need special
operations not supported by the
DBMS.
•THANX
 Database System
Concepts and
Architecture
• Data Model: A set of concepts to
describe the structure of a
database, and certain constraints
that the database should obey
 Hierarchical Model
• Hierarchical Model is based on tree structure. A
Hierarchical Db consists of collection of records,
that are connected to each other by links. The
root node is dummy node or an empty node
Hierarchical Model
 Hierarchical Model
• ADVANTAGES:
• Hierarchical Model is simple to
construct and operate on
• Corresponds to a number of natural
hierarchically organized domains -
e.g., assemblies in manufacturing,
personnel organization in companies
 Contd..
• DISADVANTAGES:
• It can not represent all the relationship of entire
world
• Maintaining the Database is very difficult task.
• Little scope for "query optimization“
• Wastage of storage space
• Inconsistency during updation of database
because when parent node is deleted that results
in deletion of child node force fully.
• Not flexible.
 Contd..

• Commercially available Hierarchical

Database system:
• IBM’s information management system
• MRI’s system 2000
• IMS informatics Mark IV
• Time –shared Data management
System of SDC
 Network Model
• Network model is based on graph structure. A
Network Db consists of collection of records, that
are connected to each other by links.
• ADVANTAGES
• Provide very efficient "High-speed" retrieval

• Simplicity
• The network model is conceptually simple and easy to design.

• Ability to handle more relationship types

• The network model can handle the one-to-many and many-to-many
relationships.

• Ease of data access

• In the network database terminology, a relationship is a set. Each set
comprises of two types of records.- an owner record and a member record,
In a network model an application can access an owner record and all the
member records within a set.

• Data Independence
• The network model draws a clear line of demarcation between programs
and the complex physical storage details. The application programs work
independently of the data. Any changes made in the data characteristics
do not affect the application program.

• Flexible than hierarchical model.

• DISADVANTAGES

• Complex to design than relational model

• Maintenance is not easy.

• Flexibilty and efficiency are less than relational

model

• Lack of Structural independence.

• Making structural modifications to the database is very
difficult in the network database model as the data access
method is navigational. Any changes made to the database
structure require the application programs to be modified
before they can access data. Though the network model
achieves data independence, it still fails to achieve
structural independence.
 Relational Model
• The relational model used the basic
concept of a relation or table. The columns
or fields in the table identify the attributes
such as name, age, and so. A tuple or row
contains all the data of a single instance of
the table such as a person named Doug. In
the relational model, every tuple must have
a unique identification or key based on the
data. In this figure, a social security
account number (SSAN) is the key that
uniquely identifies each tuple in the
relation.
• ADVANTAGES:-
• .Ease of use: The revision of any information as tables
consisting 0f rows and columns is quite natural and therefore
even first time users find it attractive.

2. Flexibility: Different tables from which information has to

be linked and extracted can be easily manipulated by
operators such as project and join to give information in the
form in which it is desired.

3. Precision: The usage of relational algebra and relational

calculus in the manipulation of he relations between the
tables ensures that there is no ambiguity.
4. Security: Security control and authorization can also be
implemented more easily by moving sensitive attributes in a
given table into a separate relation with its own authorization
controls.
5. structural Independence

• 6. Easy to Design
• Disadvantage:-

• A major constraint and therefore

disadvantage in the use of relational
database system is machine performance.
If the number of tables between which
relationships to be established are large
and the tables themselves are voluminous,
the performance in responding to queries
is definitely degraded.

• Need more powerful computing H/W and

data storage devices that increase the
cost and H/W overhead.
 Schemas versus
Instances
• Database Schema: The description of
a database. Includes descriptions of the
database structure and the constraints
that should hold on the database.
• Database Instance: The actual data
stored in a database at a particular
moment in time. Also called database
state (or occurrence).
• Distinction
• The database schema changes very
infrequently. The database state
changes every time the database is
updated.
• Schema is also called intension,
whereas state is called extension.
• Data dictionary / repository:
• Used to store schema descriptions and other
information such as design decisions,
application program descriptions, user
information, usage standards, etc.
 Three-Schema
Architecture
• Defines DBMS schemas at three levels:
• Internal schema at the internal level to describe physical
storage structures and access paths. Typically uses a physical
data model. It describes how a record (e.g., customer) is stored
• Conceptual schema describes data stored in database, and the
relationships among the data.
• type customer = record
customer_id : string;
customer_name : string;
customer_street : string;
customer_city : string;
.
• External schemas at the external level to describe the various
user views.. application programs hide details of data types.
Views can also hide information (such as an employee’s salary)
for security purposes.
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 Three-Schema
Architecture
• An architecture for a database
system.
 Three-Schema
Architecture
Advantage :-
1. Logical data Independence .

2. Physical data Independence

This division into levels allows both developers

and users to work on their own levels –They
do not need to know the details of the other
levels –and they do not have to know
anything about changes in the other levels
.
 Data Independence
• IT is defined as the characteristics of a Db
system to change the schema at on level
without having to change the schema at the
next higher level.

• Logical Data Independence: The capacity to

change the conceptual schema without having to
change the external schemas and their
application programs.
• Physical Data Independence: The capacity to
change the internal schema without having to
change the conceptual schema
 Data Independence
• Mappings among schema levels
are needed to transform requests
and data. Programs refer to an
external schema, and are mapped
by the DBMS to the internal
schema for execution.
 Data Independence
• The conceptual/internal mapping:
• The conceptual-internal mapping defines the
correspondence between the conceptual view and
the internal view, i.e. database stored on the
physical storage device. It describes how
conceptual records are stored and retrieved to
and from the storage device. This means that
conceptual-internal mapping tells the DBMS that
how the conceptual! records are physically
represented. If the structure of the stored
database is changed, then the mapping must be
changed accordingly. It is the responsibility of
DBA to manage such changes.
 Data Independence
• An external/conceptual mapping:
• An external-conceptual mapping defines
the correspondence between a particular
external view and the conceptual view.
The external-conceptual mapping tells the
DBMS which objects on the conceptual
level correspond to the objects requested
on a particular user's external view. If
changes are made to either an external
view or conceptual view, then mapping
must be changed accordingly.
• A change to the storage structure
definition means that the
conceptual/internal mapping must be
changed accordingly, so that the
conceptual schema may remain
invariant, achieving physical data
independence.
• A change to the conceptual definition
means that the conceptual/external
mapping must be changed accordingly,
so that the external schema may
remain invariant, achieving logical data
independence.
 Data Independence
• When a schema at a lower level is
changed, only the mappings
between this schema and higher-
level schemas need to be changed in
a DBMS that fully supports data
independence. The higher-level
schemas themselves are unchanged.
Hence, the application programs
need not be changed since they refer
to the external schemas
 DBMS Languages
• Data Definition Language (DDL): it is used
to 1) Create 2) Alter 3) Drop .IT IS Used by the
DBA and database designers to specify the
conceptual schema of a database.

• In many DBMSs, the DDL is also used to define

internal and external schemas (views). In
some DBMSs, separate storage definition
language (SDL) and view definition
language (VDL) are used to define internal
and external schemas. DDL statements -Data
Definition Language
•
• Data abstraction
• - one fundamental characteristic
of the database approach
• - hides details of data storage that
are not needed by most
• database users and applications
 DBMS Languages
• DML:-
• Language for accessing and manipulating
the data organized by the appropriate data
model. Queries like insert ,update delete are
exmple.
– DML also known as query language
• Two classes of languages
– Procedural – user specifies what data is
required and how to get those data ex. relational
Algebra, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, SELECT
– Declarative (nonprocedural) – user specifies
what data is required without specifying how to
get those data.ex-Relational calculus
• SQL is the most widely used query language
•.
• DCL statements-Data Control Language It is
used to create roles, permissions, and referential
integrity as well it is used to control access to
database by securing it. 1) GRANT 2) REVOKE

• TCL-Transactional Control Language It is

used to manage different transactions occurring
within a database. 1) COMMIT 2) ROLLBACK 3)
Save point
•