Human computer

interaction
Syed Zohair Haider
Lecturer
I.S.P University, Multan

LECTURE 2: COGNITIVE PROCESSES

In Today’s Lecture
Attention

Models of Attention

Consequences

Memory

A Model Of Memory
◦ Sensory Memory
◦ Short Term Memory
◦ Long Term Memory
Attention
What is attention.
◦ many competing stimuli, but.
◦ only limited capacity.
◦ therefore need to focus, and select.

Visual attention.
◦ based on location and colour.

Auditory attention.
◦ based on pitch, timbre, intensity, etc.

Color can be a powerful tool to improve user interfaces, but its

inappropriate use can severely reduce the performance of the systems
we build
 Models of Attention

Divided attention • Focused attention

Available senses
capacity

Short term store

Possible activities Processing

Focused Attention
Only one thing can be the focus of attention

Attention focus is voluntary or involuntary

Factors affecting attentional focus

◦ meaningfulness
◦ structure of display
◦ use of color, intensity,
◦ use of modalities
Example 1 (Preece, P.
103)
Attention and
Automatic Action
Frequent activities become automatic.
Carried out without conscious attention.
User does not make conscious decision.

Requiring confirmation does not necessarily reduce errors!

Consequences
Design to assist attentional focus in the right place.
Help user to.
◦ attend his/her task not the interface.
◦ decide what to focus on, based on their tasks, interest,etc.
◦ to stay focused, do not provide unnecessary distractions.
◦ structure his/her task, e.g. help

Create distraction, when really necessary!

Use alerts (only) when appropriate!
Consequences
Make information salient when it needs attending to

Use techniques that make things stand out like colour, ordering,
spacing, underlining, sequencing and animation

Avoid cluttering the interface - follow the google.com example of crisp,

simple design

Avoid using too much colors because the software allows it

An example of over-use of
graphics

Our Situation

 State the bad news

 Be clear, don’t try to obscure the
situation
Memory
Cognitive models of memory
Activation in memory
Implications of memory models
Applications of memory models
Memory
Involves encoding and recalling knowledge and acting appropriately

We don’t remember everything - involves filtering and processing

Context is important in affecting our memory

We recognize things much better than being able to recall things

◦ The rise of the GUI over command-based interfaces

Better at remembering images than words

◦ The use of icons rather than names
 A Model of Memory
Three memory stores
◦ sensory memory
◦ input buffer Sensory
◦ visual or acoustic
memory
◦ short term memory
◦ ‘scratchpad’ store
◦ visual or acoustic
Short
◦ Long term memory
◦ stores facts and meanings
term
◦ semantically organized memory

Long
term
memory
 Revised Memory Model
Working memory is a subset of
LTM.
Sensory
Items are semantically linked. memory
items in working memory are
activated.
activation is supplied from other Working
linked chunks and from sensory memory
input.

Long term
memory
Revised Human
Processor Model and
Related Memory
Visual Stimulus
Perceptual
processor
Visual Auditory
image image
store store
Motor
processor
Working
memory
Cognitive
Processor
Long term
memory
Sensory Memory/
Perceptual Store
Visual and auditory impressions
◦ visuospatial sketchpad, phonological loop

Very brief, but veridical representation of what was perceived

◦ Details decay quickly (~.5 sec)
◦ Rehearsal prevents decay
◦ Another task prevents rehearsal

Types
◦ Iconic: for visual stimulus (fireworks trail, finger moving)
◦ Aural: for auditory stimulus (repeat a question)
◦ Haptic: touch stimulus
Sensory Memory/
Perceptual Store
Buffers for stimuli received through senses
◦ iconic memory: visual stimuli
◦ echoic memory: aural stimuli
◦ haptic memory: tactile stimuli

Examples
◦ “sparkler” trail, finger moving
◦ stereo sound

Continuously overwritten
Short Term Memory
Display format should match memory system used to perform task

New info can interfere with old info

Scratch-pad for temporary recall

◦ rapid access ~ 70ms

◦ rapid decay ~ 200ms

◦ limited capacity - 7± 2 chunks (chunk formation called “closure”)

Short Term Memory -
Example
Memory flushing
◦ ATM machine provides ATM card to user before cash
Short Term Memory
Example

35 x 6
Step 1: 30 x 6
Step 2: 5 x 6
Ans: step 1 + step 2
Short Term Memory
Example

212348278493202 (difficult)

0121 414 2626 (easy)

HEC ATR ANU PTH ETR EET

(The Cat Ran Up The Tree)
Serial Position Curve
(without distracter)
How does the position in the list effect recall?

Serial Position Curve

 Components of the
serial
Recency effect
position curve
Chance of
◦ better recall for items at the end of
recall
the Imme-
list because these items are still active in diate
STM (and possibly SM) at time of recall recall
Primacy effect:
◦ better recall for items at the beginning
of the list (because these items have
been rehearsed more frequently than Recal
other items and thus have a greater l
chance of being placed in LTM) after
30 s
Position in list

LTM STM
 Serial Position
The distracter task diminish the
Curve
recency effect since the items at the
end of the list no longer in the STM
Primacy effect is still present since the
information in LTM is not effected by
distracter task
Long Term Memory
Organized as a network of connected chunks of knowledge

active chunks are in the working memory

activation spreads through the network

◦ strength of connection
◦ retrieval of items into WM

Repository for all our knowledge

◦ slow access ~ 1/10 second
◦ slow decay, if any
◦ huge or unlimited capacity
 Long
Example
Term Memory
◦ the dog chewed the food
◦ the cat stole the food
◦ the dog chased the cat
do
g

chewe chased
d

food cat
stole
LT Memory Structure
Episodic memory
◦ Events & experiences in serial form
◦ Helps us recall what occurred

Semantic memory
◦ Structured record of facts, concepts & skills
◦ One theory says it’s like a network
◦ Another uses frames & scripts (like record structs)

semantic LTM derived from episodic LTM

LT Memory Structure
Semantic memory structure
◦ provides access to information
◦ represents relationships between bits of information
◦ supports inference

Model: semantic network

◦ inheritance – child nodes inherit properties of parent nodes
◦ relationships between bits of information explicit
◦ supports inference through inheritance
LTM - semantic network
Models of LTM - Frames
Information organized in data structures

Slots in structure instantiated with values for instance of data

Type–subtype relationships
DOG COLLIE

Fixed Fixed
legs: 4 breed of: DOG
type: sheepdog
Default
diet: carniverous Default
sound: bark size: 65 cm
Variable Variable
size: colour
colour
Models of LTM - Scripts
Model of stereotypical information required to interpret situation
Script has elements
“John that
took his dog can
to the be instantiated
surgery. After seeing thewith values
vet he left.” for context

Script for a visit to the vet

Entry conditions: dog ill Roles: vet examines

vet open diagnoses
owner has money treats
owner brings dog in
Result: dog better
pays
owner poorer
takes dog out
vet richer
Scenes: arriving at reception
Props: examination table
waiting in room
medicine
examination
instruments
paying
Tracks: dog needs medicine
dog needs operation
Models of LTM -
Production System
Representation of procedural knowledge
◦ Knowledge of how to do something

Condition/action rules stored in LTM

◦ Info comes to STM
◦ if condition is matched in LTM
◦ then use rule to determine action.
IF dog is wagging tail
THEN pat dog

IF dog is growling
THEN run away
LTM processes
3 processes
◦ Storage
◦ Forgetting
◦ Information retrieval
LTM - Storage of
information
rehearsal
◦ information moves from STM to LTM

total time hypothesis

◦ amount retained proportional to rehearsal time

distribution of practice effect

◦ optimized by spreading learning over time

structure, meaning and familiarity

◦ information easier to remember
LTM - Forgetting
decay
◦ information is lost gradually but very slowly

interference
◦ new information replaces old: retroactive interference
◦ old may interfere with new: proactive inhibition

so may not forget at all memory is selective …

… affected by emotion – can subconsciously `choose' to forget

 Memory Characteristics
Things move from STM to LTM by rehearsal & practice and by use in
context
Unclear if we ever
really forget something Lack of use

We “forget” things due to decay and interference

Similar gets in
way of old
LTM - retrieval
recall
◦ information reproduced from memory can be assisted by cues, e.g.
categories, imagery

recognition
◦ information gives knowledge that it has been seen before
◦ less complex than recall - information is cue
The problem with the
classic ‘72’
George Miller’s theory of how much information people can remember

People’s immediate memory capacity is very limited

Many designers have been led to believe that this is useful finding for
interaction design
What some designers get up to…
Present only 7 options on a menu
Display only 7 icons on a tool bar
Have no more than 7 bullets in a list
Place only 7 items on a pull down menu
Place only 7 tabs on the top of a website page
◦ But this is wrong? Why?
Why?
Inappropriate application of the theory

People can scan lists of bullets, tabs, menu items till they see the one they
want

They don’t have to recall them from memory having only briefly heard or
seen them

Sometimes a small number of items is good design

But it depends on task and available screen estate

More appropriate application of memory
research
File management and retrieval is a real problem to most users

Research on information retrieval can be usefully applied

Memory involves 2 processes

◦ recall-directed and recognition-based scanning

Recall is based on context

◦ Not recognizing neighbour in bus

Recognition rather than recall

◦ Browser bookmarks
◦ GUI interface icons
File Management
File management systems should be designed to optimize both kinds of
memory processes

Facilitate existing memory strategies and try to assist users when they
get stuck

Help users encode files in richer ways

◦ Provide them with ways of saving files using colour, flagging, image, flexible
text, time stamping, etc
 People
Good • Bad
◦ Infinite capacity LTM
– Limited capacity STM
◦ LTM duration & complexity
– Limited duration STM
– Unreliable access to LTM
– Error-prone processing
– Slow processing
Next Lecture
Learning

Problem Solving

Errors

Emotions