DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

SCSA1301

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SCSA1301 DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO DATABASES
UNIT 2 DATABASE DESIGN
UNIT 3 QUERY PROCESSING
UNIT 4 RECOVERY AND SECURITY
UNIT 5 OBJECT DATABASE AND CURRENT TREND
 UNIT 3
QUERY PROCESSING
UNIT 2 DATABASE DESIGN

UNIT 3 QUERY PROCESSING

SQL Queries
Embedded SQL
 My SQL:
 Basics
 Queries in MySQL and Algorithms for Query Processing and Optimization

Introduction to Transaction Processing Concepts and Theory

Concurrency control techniques.
 SQL
Structured Query Language SQL is a computer
language used to interact with relational database
SQL is a tool for organizing, managing, and retrieving
archived data from a computer database
Originally, it was named Structured English Query
Language (SEQUEL) by IBM later it was renamed “SQL”
SQL follows ANSI standard for accessing and manipulating
databases

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 Structured Query Languages
Data Definition Language(DDL) – Consists of commands
which are used to define the database
Data Manipulation Language(DML) – Consists of
commands which are used to manipulate the data present
in the database
Data Control Language(DCL) – Consists of commands
which deal with the user permissions and controls of the
database system
Transaction Control Language(TCL) – Consist of commands
which deal with the transaction of the database

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 Data Definition Language (DDL)
SQL commands
CREATE - This command is used to create the database or its
objects i.e. Tables
DROP - This command is used to delete tables from the
database
TRUNCATE - This is used to remove all records from a table,
including all spaces allocated for the records are removed
ALTER - This is used to alter the structure of the database
RENAME - This is used to rename a table existing in the
database

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 DDL - CREATE
CREATE TABLE
This statement is used to create a table
Syntax
CREATE TABLE TableName ( Column1 datatype, Column2
datatype, Column3 datatype, .... ColumnN datatype );
Example
CREATE TABLE Employee_Info
(EmployeeID int, EmployeeName varchar(20),
EmergencyContactName varchar(20), PhoneNumber int,
Address varchar(50), City varchar(10), Country
varchar(10));
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 DDL - CREATE
CREATE TABLE using another TABLE
Example
CREATE TABLE ExampleTable AS
SELECT EmployeeName, PhoneNumber
FROM Employee_Info;

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 DDL - DROP
This statement is used to drop (delete) an existing table or
a database with data
Syntax
DROP DATABASE Database_Name;
Example
DROP DATABASE Employee;
Syntax
DROP TABLE Table_Name;
Example
DROP Table Employee_Info

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 DDL - TRUNCATE
This command is used to delete the information(records)
present in the table but does not delete the structure of
the table. So, once you use this command, your
information will be lost, but not the table.
Syntax
TRUNCATE TABLE TableName;
Example
TRUNCATE Table Employee_Info;

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 DDL - ALTER
 This command is used to delete, modify or add constraints or
columns in an existing table
 The ‘ALTER TABLE’ Statement with ADD/DROP COLUMN
Syntax
 ALTER TABLE TableName ADD ColumnName Datatype;
ALTER TABLE TableName DROP COLUMN ColumnName;
Example
ADD Column BloodGroup:
 ALTER TABLE Employee_Info ADD BloodGroup varchar(255);
DROP Column BloodGroup:
 ALTER TABLE Employee_Info DROP COLUMN BloodGroup;

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 DDL - RENAME
This command is used to rename a table with the help of
ALTER TABLE
Syntax
ALTER TABLE table_name RENAME TO new_table_name;
Example
ALTER TABLE Student RENAME TO Student_Details;
ALTER TABLE Student RENAME COLUMN NAME TO
FIRST_NAME;

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 Data Manipulation Language
(DML)
SQL commands
SHOW – This command is used to list database and database
tables
USE – This command is used to select the database
INSERT – This command is used to insert data into a table
UPDATE – This command is used to update existing data
within a table
DELETE – This command is used to delete records from a
table
SELECT – This command is used to retrieve data from the
database table
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 DDL - SHOW
This command is used to list out the available database

and database tables

Syntax
SHOW databases;

SHOW tables;

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 DML - USE
The USE statement is used to select the database on which
you want to perform operations
Syntax
USE DatabaseName;
Example
USE Employee;

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 DML - INSERT
This statement is used to insert new records into the database
table
Syntax
INSERT INTO TableName (Column1, Column2,
Column3, ...,ColumnN) VALUES (value1, value2, value3, ...);

Example
INSERT INTO Employee_Info(EmployeeID, EmployeeName,
Emergency ContactName, PhoneNumber, Address, City, Country)
VALUES (‘10', ‘Arun’,’Kamal', '9921321141', ‘No 12 Rich Street',
'Chennai', 'India’);
INSERT INTO Employee_Info VALUES (‘10', ‘Arun’,’Kamal',
'9921321141', ‘No 12 Rich Street', 'Chennai', 'India’);
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 DML - UPDATE
This statement is used to modify the records already
present in the table
Syntax
UPDATE TableName SET Column1 = Value1, Column2 =
Value2, ... WHERE Condition;
Example
UPDATE Employee_Info SET EmployeeName = ‘Asha',
City= ‘Hyderabad’ WHERE EmployeeID = 1;

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 DML - DELETE
This statement is used to delete the existing records in a
table
Syntax
DELETE FROM TableName WHERE Condition;
Example
DELETE FROM Employee_Info WHERE
EmployeeName='Preeti‘;

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 DML - SELECT
This statement is used to select data from a database and
the data returned is stored in a result table, called
the result-set.
Syntax
SELECT Column1, Column2, ...ColumN FROM TableName;
* is used to select all the columns from the table
SELECT * FROM table_name;
Example
SELECT EmployeeID, EmployeeName FROM Employee_Info;
* is used to select all from the table
SELECT * FROM Employee_Info;

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 Data Control Language(DCL)
SQL commands
GRANT - allow users access privileges to the database
REVOKE - withdraw users access privileges given by using
the GRANT command

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 DCL - GRANT
 This command is employed to grant a privilege to a user. GRANT
command allows specified users to perform specified tasks
Syntax
 GRANT privileges_names ON object TO user;

Example
 CREATE USER ‘UserName’
 USE DatabaseName;
 GRANT SELECT ON TableName TO ‘UserName’
 GRANT SELECT, UPDATE ON TableName TO ‘UserName’
 GRANT ALL ON TableName TO ‘UserName’

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 DCL - REVOKE
 It is employed to remove a privilege from a user. REVOKE helps
the owner to cancel previously granted permissions
 Syntax
 REVOKE privilege_name on objectname from user;
 Example
 REVOKE SELECT ON TableName TO ‘UserName’;
 REVOKE ALL ON TableName TO ‘UserName’;

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 Transaction Control Language(TCL)
SQL Commands
COMMIT – This command is used to save data permanently

ROLLBACK – This command is used to get the data or restore

the data to the last save point or last committed state

SAVEPOINT – This command is used to save the data at a

particular point temporarily so that whenever needed can be

rollback to that particular point

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 TCL - COMMIT
This command is used to save the data permanently into
the database
Whenever any DDL commands like -INSERT, DELETE or
UPDATE are performed, these can be rollbacked if the data
is not stored permanently
Syntax
COMMIT;

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 TCL - ROLLBACK
This command is used to get the data or restore the data
to the last savepoint or last committed state
If due to some reasons the data inserted, deleted or
updated is not correct, you can rollback the data to a
particular savepoint or if save point is not done, then to the
last committed state
Syntax
ROLLBACK;

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 TCL - SAVEPOINT
This command is used to save the data at a particular
point temporarily so that whenever needed can be rollback
to that particular point
Syntax
SAVEPOINT name;

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 EMBEDDED SQL
Database languages are meant for dealing with databases
viz., defining, constructing, manipulating, sharing
All these transactions can be performed by a good
database developer or a SQL programmer
But in real-time, these developers or programmers will not
use the database. The actual use of DB is for the normal
user for whom DB is a black box
In order to make it easy for the normal user, applications,
UI or forms are created where the user can enter values or
requirements and the application program will manipulate
the request
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 EMBEDDED SQL
Applications are developed using some general-purpose
languages like C, C++, JAVA, PYTHON, PHP, etc.
These applications use UI to interact with the user request
but there is no relevancy with the DB
Both application language and DB language are completely
different from each other
This gap between application programs and SQL is bridged
by the use of embedded SQL

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 EMBEDDED SQL -
C

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EMBEDDED SQL -C
In this example:
The code opens the database or creates it if it doesn't exist.
An SQL query is defined to retrieve names of employees with salaries
greater than $50,000.
The sqlite3_exec function is used to execute the query. It takes a callback
function (callback in this case) that handles the results.
The callback function is called for each row returned by the query. It prints
the column names and values for each row.
After executing the query, the database is closed.
Remember that this is a basic example to demonstrate the concept of
embedded SQL in C. In real-world scenarios, you would need to handle
error checking more comprehensively, manage memory properly, and
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handle more complex queries and operations.
 EMBEDDED SQL
Embedded SQL is the one that combines the high-level
language with the DB language. It allows the application
languages to communicate with DB and get requested
result
The high-level languages which support embedding SQLs
within it are also known as the host language
Embedded SQL statements are SQL statements written
inline with the program source code of the host language

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 EMBEDDED SQL - PYTHON
Python needs a MySQL driver to access the MySQL
database
Download and install "MySQL Connector“
 python -m pip install mysql-connector-python

Create and test MySQL connection

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 EMBEDDED SQL - PYTHON

A cursor is a temporary memory allocated by the Database Server at the time of performing
operations on the database by User

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 EMBEDDED SQL - PYTHON

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 EMBEDDED SQL - PYTHON

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 EMBEDDED SQL - PYTHON

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 Query Processing and Optimization

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Query processing
Query Processing is the activity performed in extracting data from
the database.
In query processing, it takes various steps for fetching the data
from the database.
Query processing involves 3 basic steps

 Parsing and Translation

 optimization
 Evaluation

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 Query Processing & Optimization
Query processing – activities involved in retrieving
data from the database
SQL query translation from high level to the low-level
language implementing relational algebra and then
query execution
Query optimization – selection of an efficient query
execution plan

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 Query Processing & Optimization
Before processing the SQL query the system must
translate the query into a language that the system
understands
Hence the more useful internal representation is based
on the relational algebra

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 Query Processing & Optimization

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 Query Processing & Optimization
Internal form &check syntax
and relations

Best expression
High level query

Low level query

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 Query Processing & Optimization
Parser – Checks for the syntax and verifies the relation
mentioned in the query with the actual database
Translator – translates the query into relational algebra
expressions
Optimizer – collects the statistical information about the query
like CPU cycles, memory access time, etc., and estimates the
cost of the query
Execution plan – informs the evaluation engine on how to
perform query execution based on the inputs from the optimizer
Evaluation engine – access the data from the database and
generates the required result

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 Query Processing & Optimization
Example:
SELECT marks
FROM student
WHERE marks > 90;
This query can be translated into the following relational
algebra expressions
σ marks>90(∏marks(student))
 ∏marks(σ marks>90(student))

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 Query Processing & Optimization
Consider the relational algebra expression for the query
Find the names of the bank customers who have an
account at any branch located in Chennai
 Type-1
 ∏customer_name(σbranch_city=‘Chennai’(branch x (account x depositor)))

 Type-2
 ∏customer_name((σbranch_city=‘Chennai’ (branch)) x (account x depositor))

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 Transaction processing
Concepts

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 Transaction processing concept
A transaction is a program including a collection of database
operations, executed as a logical unit of data processing
The operations performed in a transaction include one or more
database operations like insert, delete, update or retrieve data
It is an atomic process that is either performed into completion
entirely or is not performed at all
A transaction involving only data retrieval without any data
update is called a read-only transaction

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 Transaction processing concept
Each high-level operation can be divided into a number of
low-level tasks or operations
read_item() − reads data item from storage to main

memory
modify_item() − change value of an item in the main

memory
write_item() − write the modified value from main memory

to storage
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 Transaction operations
The low-level operations performed in a transaction are
begin_transaction − A marker that specifies the start of transaction
execution
read_item or write_item − Database operations that may be
interleaved with main memory operations as a part of the transaction
end_transaction − A marker that specifies the end of the transaction
commit − A signal to specify that the transaction has been
successfully completed in its entirety and will not be undone
rollback − A signal to specify that the transaction has been
unsuccessful and so all temporary changes in the database are
undone. A committed transaction cannot be rolled back

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 Transaction states
A transaction may go through a subset of five states,
active, partially committed, committed, failed, and aborted
Active − The initial state where the transaction enters is
the active state. The transaction remains in this state while
it is executing read, write, or other operations
Partially Committed − The transaction enters this state
after the last statement of the transaction has been
executed
Committed − The transaction enters this state after
successful completion of the transaction and system
checks have issued a commit signal
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 Transaction states
Failed − The transaction goes from partially committed
state or active state to failed state when it is discovered
that normal execution can no longer proceed or system
checks fail
Aborted − This is the state after the transaction has been
rolled back after failure and the database has been
restored to its state that was before the transaction began

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 Transaction states

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 ACID Properties
 Any transaction must maintain the ACID properties, viz. Atomicity,
Consistency, Isolation, and Durability

 Atomicity − This property states that a transaction is an atomic

unit of processing, that is, either it is performed in its entirety or not
performed at all. No partial update should exist
 Consistency − A transaction should take the database from one
consistent state to another consistent state. It should not adversely
affect any data item in the database
 Isolation − A transaction should be executed as if it is the only one
in the system. There should not be any interference from the other
concurrent transactions that are simultaneously running
 Durability − If a committed transaction brings about a change,
that change should be durable in the database and not lost in case
of any failure

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 Concurrency control
techniques

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 Concurrency control
techniques

What is Database Concurrency

Definition
Concurrency Control – Problems
Concurrency Control Protocols

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Concurrency Control in DBMS is a procedure of managing
simultaneous transactions ensuring their atomicity, isolation,
consistency, and serializability.
Several problems that arise when numerous transactions execute

simultaneously in a random manner are referred to as concurrency

control problems.
Serializability in DBMS ensures that multiple transactions can

access and modify the same data without interfering with each
other's operations. It helps to prevent data inconsistencies and
anomalies that can occur when multiple transactions try to access
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and modify the same data concurrently.
 Concurrency Control
What is Database Concurrency Definition
Database concurrency is a unique characteristic enabling two or
more users to retrieve information from the database at the same
time without affecting data integrity.

Concurrency Control in Database Management System is a

procedure of managing simultaneous operations without
conflicting with each other
It ensures that Database transactions are performed concurrently
and accurately to produce correct results without violating data
integrity of the respective Database
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 Concurrency Control - Problems
simultaneous execution of transaction over a share database can crate
several data integrity and consistency problems
 Lost Updates occur when multiple transactions select the same row and
update the row based on the value selected
 Uncommitted dependency issues occur when the second transaction
selects a row which is updated by another transaction (dirty read)
 Non-Repeatable Read occurs when a second transaction is trying to
access the same row several times and reads different data each time.
 Incorrect Summary issue occurs when one transaction takes summary
over the value of all the instances of a repeated data item, and the
second transaction update a few instances of that specific data item. In
that situation, the resulting summary does not reflect a correct result
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 Concurrency
Control
Concurrency control is an essential aspect of database management
systems (DBMS) that ensures transactions can execute concurrently
without interfering with each other. However, concurrency control can
be challenging to implement, and without it, several problems can
arise, affecting the consistency of the database. In this article, we will
discuss some of the concurrency problems that can occur in DBMS
transactions and explore solutions to prevent them.

When multiple transactions execute concurrently in an uncontrolled or

unrestricted manner, then it might lead to several problems. These
problems are commonly referred to as concurrency problems in a
database environment.

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 Concurrency Control Protocols
Lock-Based Protocols
Two Phase Locking Protocol
Timestamp-Based Protocols
Validation-Based Protocols

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 Lock-based Protocols
Lock Based Protocol in DBMS is a mechanism in which a
transaction cannot Read or Write the data until it acquires an
appropriate lock
Lock based protocols help to eliminate the concurrency problem
in DBMS for simultaneous transactions by locking or isolating a
particular transaction to a single user
 A lock is a data variable that is associated with a data item
All lock requests are made to the concurrency-control manager.
Transactions proceed only once the lock request is granted

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 Lock-based Protocols
Shared Lock (S) - A shared lock is also called a Read-only
lock. With the shared lock, the data item can be shared
between transactions.
This is because you will never have permission to update
data on the data item
For example, consider a case where two transactions are
reading the account balance of a person. The database will
let them read by placing a shared lock. However, if another
transaction wants to update that account’s balance, a
shared lock prevents it until the reading process is over

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 Lock-based Protocols
Exclusive Lock (X) - a data item can be read as well as
written. This is exclusive and can’t be held concurrently on
the same data item
X-lock is requested using lock-x instruction. Transactions
may unlock the data item after finishing the ‘write’
operation
For example, when a transaction needs to update the
account balance of a person. You can allow this transaction
by placing an X lock on it. Therefore, when the second
transaction wants to read or write, exclusive lock prevents
this operation
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 Starvation and Deadlock
Starvation is the situation when a transaction needs to
wait for an indefinite period to acquire a lock

Deadlock refers to a specific situation where two or more

processes are waiting for each other to release a resource
or more than two processes are waiting for the resource in
a circular chain

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 Two-Phase Locking Protocol
Two Phase Locking Protocol also known as 2PL protocol is a
method of concurrency control in DBMS that ensures
serializability by applying a lock to the transaction data
which blocks other transactions to access the same data
simultaneously
This locking protocol divides the execution phase of a
transaction into three different parts

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 Two-Phase Locking Protocol
In the first phase, when the transaction begins to execute,
it requires permission for the locks it needs
The second part is where the transaction obtains all the
locks. When a transaction releases its first lock, the third
phase starts
In this third phase, the transaction cannot demand any
new locks. Instead, it only releases the acquired locks

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 Two-Phase Locking Protocol
Strict-Two phase locking system is almost similar to 2PL.
The only difference is that Strict-2PL never releases a lock after
using it. It holds all the locks until the commit point and releases
all the locks at one go when the process is over
In Centralized 2 PL, a single site is responsible for the lock
management process. It has only one lock manager for the
entire DBMS
Primary copy 2PL mechanism, many lock managers are
distributed to different sites. After that, a particular lock
manager is responsible for managing the lock for a set of data
items. When the primary copy has been updated, the change is
propagated to the slaves
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 Two-Phase Locking Protocol
Distributed 2PL - In this kind of two-phase locking
mechanism, Lock managers are distributed to all sites.
They are responsible for managing locks for data at that
site. If no data is replicated, it is equivalent to primary
copy 2PL

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 Timestamp-based Protocol
Timestamp based Protocol in DBMS is an algorithm that
uses the System Time or Logical Counter as a timestamp
to serialize the execution of the concurrent transactions
The Timestamp-based protocol ensures that every
conflicting read and write operations are executed in a
timestamp order
The older transaction is always given priority in this
method. It uses system time to determine the timestamp
of the transaction. This is the most commonly used
concurrency protocol

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 Validation based Protocol
Validation based Protocol in DBMS also known as
Optimistic Concurrency Control Technique is a method to
avoid concurrency in transactions
In this protocol, the local copies of the transaction data are
updated rather than the data itself, which results in less
interference while execution of the transaction

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 Validation based Protocol
The Validation based Protocol is performed in the following
three phases:
Read Phase - the data values from the database can be
read by a transaction but the write operation or updates are
only applied to the local data copies, not the actual database
Validation Phase - the data is checked to ensure that there
is no violation of serializability while applying the transaction
updates to the database
Write Phase - the updates are applied to the database if
the validation is successful, else; the updates are not
applied, and the transaction is rolled back
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