Acropolis Institute of Technology and Research

B.Tech (CSE/CY)-III sem

Digital Circuits and Systems

By: Dr. Asmita Rajawat

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 Digital transmission refers to transmission of
digital signals between two or more points in a
communication system.
Analog signal needs to be converted to digital
Digital pulses prior to transmission and converted
back to analog signals in the receiver.

Transmission The digitized signals may be in the form of

binary or any other form of discrete level
digital pulses .
 • Noise immunity
• Error detection and correction
ADVANTAGES • Ease of multiplexing
OF DIGITAL • Integrating analog and digital data

TRANSMISSION • Use of signal regenerators

• Data integrity
• Data security

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 • Requires more bandwidth
• Requires precise time synchronization
between the clocks used in transmitter and
DISADVANTAGES receiver
OF DIGITAL • Need for additional complex circuitry for
encoding and decoding
TRANSMISSION
• Quality of service (QoS) can degrade all of
a sudden from very good to very poor if the
SNR drops to a specified threshold level

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 Source Source Channel Encoder Modulator
Encoder

NOISE Channel

Receiver Channel Decoder Demodulator

Source Decoder

Block Diagram of
Digital Communication
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Role of individual blocks

• Source: The source of information can be analog or digital, e.g. analog: audio or video
signal, digital: like teletype signal.

• Source Encoder: The signal produced by source is converted into digital signal
consists of 1′s and 0′s. sequence of binary digits is called information sequence.

• Source Encoding : Process of efficiently converting the output of analog or digital

source into a sequence of binary digits is known as source encoding.

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Role of individual blocks

• Channel Encoder: It involves the addition of redundant bits to a message signal that
will make up for the errors. This involves the identification and as well as the
correction of errors, if any. Eg. Hamming code

• Digital Modulator: The binary sequence is passed to digital modulator which in turns
convert the sequence into electric signals so that we can transmit them on channel.

• Channel: Physical medium that is used for transmitting signals from transmitter to
receiver.

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Role of individual blocks

• Digital Demodulator: Processes the channel corrupted transmitted waveform and

reduces the waveform to the sequence of numbers that represents estimates of the
transmitted data symbols.
• Channel Decoder: Reconstruct the original information sequence from the knowledge
of the code used by the channel encoder and the redundancy contained in the received
data.
• Source Decoder: Source decoder tries to decode the sequence from the knowledge of
the encoding algorithm.
• Output Transducer: Converts the desired signal in desired format analog or digital.

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Channels for Digital Communications

• Main characteristics of the channel :

 Bandwidth
 Power
• In addition the other characteristics are whether the channel is linear or nonlinear, and how free the channel is free from the
external interference.
• Five channels considered in the digital communication:
 Telephone channels
 Coaxial cables
 Optical fibers
 Microwave radio, and satellite channels.

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PCM(Pulse Code Modulation)

PCM consists of three steps to digitize an analog signal:

 Sampling
 Quantization
 Binary encoding

• Before sampling, filtering of the signal is done to limit the maximum frequency of the signal.
• Filtering should ensure that we do not distort the signal, i.e. remove high frequency
components that affect the signal shape.

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 PCM (contd…)
Quantized
Signal
PCM Encoder

Analog 10010…
signal
Sampler Quantizer Encoder
Digital Data

PAM signal

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Review: Periodic (Uniform) Sampling

• Process of transmitting signals in the

form of pulses (discontinuous signals)

• The signal is sampled at regular

intervals such that each sample is
proportional to the amplitude of signal
at that instant. This technique is called
“sampling”.

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 Sampling Rate (Low pass signals)

Nyquist showed that it is possible to reconstruct a band-limited signal from periodic samples, as long as the sampling
rate is at least twice the frequency of the highest frequency component of the signal i.e.
fs ≥ 2fm ,where fs is sampling rate
fs = 2fm (Nyquist Rate)

• Sampling rates that are too low result in aliasing or fold over.
• Sampling leads to a discrete time signal

There are 3 sampling methods:

 Ideal - an impulse at each sampling instant

 Natural - a pulse of short width with varying amplitude
 Flat top - sample and hold, like natural but with single amplitude value
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Types of Sampling

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 Quantization

• Quantization: It is the process of dividing the maximum

value of the analog signal into a fixed no. of levels in
order to convert the PAM into a Binary Code. The levels
obtained are called “quantization levels”.
• By quantizing the PAM pulse, original signal is only
approximated.
• The process of converting analog signals to PCM is called
quantizing.
• Since the original signal can have an infinite number of
signal levels, the quantizing process will produce errors
called quantizing errors or quantizing noise.

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16
 Quantizing Process

• m(t) is confined to the range

• Total range is divided into L equal intervals each of size S (step size)
S= - /L
For eg. If L=8
Locate quantization levels ………

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 Quantizing Process

is generated as follows:
• Whenever m(t) is in the range the signal maintains the constant level ; whenever
m(t) is in the range , maintains the constant level ; and so on.

• At every instant of time, has the value of the quantization level to which m(t) is
closest. Thus, the signal does not change at all with time or it makes a “quantum”
jump of step size S.

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 Encoding

• Encoding process translates a discrete set of sample values to a more appropriate

form of a signal called as codeword.

• The binary symbol 1 is represented by a pulse of constant amplitude for a one bit
duration and symbol 0 is represented by switching off the pulse for one bit
duration.

• Makes the transmitted signal more robust to noise interference

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Example of constructing PCM sequence

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 Electrical representations of binary digits

Fig a: Pulse representation of the binary numbers used to code the samples
Fig b: Representation by voltage levels rather than pulses

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 PCM coder-decoder
K=instance of sample

Serial Output
x(t) xq(kTs)
x(kTs)
Analog L
Sample
signal P Quantizer Encoder
& Hold
F

Rb bits/sec
x(t)
x’a(kTs)
LPF Decoder Quantizer

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 PCM System

The Encoder:
• Analog signal is sampled and these samples are subjected to the operation of
quantization
• Quantized signals applied to an encoder
• Encoder responds to each such sample by the generation of a unique and
identifiable binary pulse pattern
• Combination of encoder and quantizer is called an analog-digital converter

A/D converter accepts an analog signal and replaces it with a

succession of code symbols

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 PCM System

The Decoder:
• First operation to be performed is separation of the signal from the noise which
has been added during the transmission along the channel
• Separation of the signal from the noise is possible because of the quantization
(“requantization”)
• The receiver quantizer then, in each pulse slot decides whether a positive pulse or
negative pulse was received.
• Quantized PAM is then filtered
The decoder also called a digital to analog (D/A) converter, outputs the sequence of
quantized multilevel sample pulses.

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Quantization Error

• Difference between an input value m(t) and its quantized value is called a Quantization
Error/Noise q(t).

q(t) = m(t) -

• The quantized amplitude is limited to a range, say from –mp to +mp

• Range divided into L levels.

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PAM/TDM system
• Sampling theorem provides the basis.

• The technique efficiently utilizes the complete channel

for data transmission hence sometimes known as
PAM/TDM. This is so because a TDM system uses a
pulse amplitude modulation.

• In this modulation technique, each pulse holds some

short time duration allowing maximal channel usage.

• The system consists of multiple LPF depending on the

number of data inputs.

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 Theory of TDM

TDM Frames

A2 A1 Frame 2 Frame 1
C2 B2 A2 C1 B1 A1
Source A
B2 B1
Source B Mux
C2 C1 Common Channel
Source C

• Signal from the 2 sources, is divided into multiple frames each having their
fixed time slot.
.
• A frame is transmitted at a time that is composed of one unit of each source.

• When a frame gets transmitted over the particular time slot, the next frame
uses the same channel to get transmitted and the process is further repeated
until the completion of the transmission.
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 Block diagram of PAM/TDM system
Reconstruction
Pre-alias filters filters 1
1 v LPF
v
LPF Synchronized
2 2
v
LPF
v
LPF

Pulse Communication Pulse

modulator Channel demodulator
Commutator Decommutator

N Clock pulses Clock pulses LPF

v
v
LPF
N

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Explanation of TDM

TDM enables the joint utilization of a common communication channel

Input message signal is restricted in bandwidth by a low-pass pre-alias filter

Inputs are further applied to a commutator

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• Following the commutation process, the multiplexed signal is applied to a pulse modulator.

• Pulse modulator transforms the multiplexed into a form suitable for transmission

• At the receiver, received signal is applied to a pulse modulator

• The narrow samples produced at the pulse demodulator are distributed to the LPFs by means
of decommutator.

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 Implementation of TDM

• Synchronous TDM: In this technique, the time slots are assigned at the beginning, irrespective of
the idea about the presence of data at the source. This leads to the wastage of the channel capacity.

Frame 3 Frame 2 Frame 1

v
B3 A3 C2 B2 C1 A1

• Asynchronous TDM: It is also termed as statistical or intelligent TDM technique as it eliminates

the drawback of wastage of time slot present in synchronous TDM

F F F F

C1 B2 C3 A2 C2 B3 C1 A1

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 Advantages of TDM

 Simple circuit design.

 It uses entire channel bandwidth for the transmission of the signal.

 The problem of Intermodulation distortion is not present in TDM.

 Pulse overlapping can sometimes cause crosstalk but it can be reduced by utilizing guard time.

TDM finds its application mainly in a digital communication system, in cellular radio and in satellite communication system.

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Disadvantages of TDM

The transmitting and receiving section must be properly synchronized in order

to have proper signal transmission and reception.

Slow narrowband fading can wipe out all the TDM channels.

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Overview of TDM

TDM enables the joint utilization of a common communication

channel

Input message signal is restricted in bandwidth by a low-pass

pre-alias filter

Inputs are further applied to a commutator

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 Functions of Electronic commutator

To take a narrow sample of each of the N input messages at a rate whish is
slightly higher than 2W

To sequentially interleave these N samples inside the sampling interval

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• Following the commutation process, the multiplexed signal is applied to a pulse
modulator.

• Pulse modulator transforms the multiplexed into a form suitable for transmission

• At the receiver, received signal is applied to a pulse modulator

• The narrow samples produced at the pulse demodulator are distributed to the LPFs
by means of decommutator.

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Binary Amplitude shift keying
Amplitude Shift Keying is a type of Amplitude Modulation which
represents the binary data in the form of variations in the amplitude
of a signal.

Any modulated signal has a high frequency carrier.

The binary signal when ASK modulated, gives a zero value for
Low input while it gives the carrier output for High input.

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38
 Transmitter and Receiver
• BASK Transmitter:

Binary BASK
Unipolar NRZ
Data signal
line coding

∅ 1(𝑡 )
• BASK Receiver: Y
observation
𝑇𝑏
Decision
Y(t) ∫ ( . ) 𝑑𝑡 Device
0

Threshold
∅ 1(𝑡 ) T= 39
Binary Phase Shift Keying
Phase Shift Keying (PSK) is the digital modulation technique in
which the phase of the carrier signal is changed by varying the sine
and cosine inputs at a particular time.
BPSK is also called as 2-phase PSK or Phase Reversal Keying. In
this technique, the sine wave carrier takes two phase reversals such
as 0° and 180°.

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 Transmitter and Receiver
• BPSK Transmitter:

Binary BPSK
Polar NRZ
Data signal
line coding

∅ 1(𝑡 )
• BPSK Receiver: Y
observation
𝑇𝑏
Decision
Y(t) ∫ ( . ) 𝑑𝑡 Device
0

Threshold
∅ 1(𝑡 ) T= 41
Binary Frequency Shift Keying

• In binary FSK, the frequency of a sinusoidal carrier is shifted

according to the binary symbol.
• In other words, the frequency of a sinusoidal carrier is shifted between
two discrete values.
• That means, two different frequencies are present according to two
two binary symbols.
DATA RATE LIMITS

A very important consideration in data communications is how fast we can send

data, in bits per second, over a channel.
Data rate depends on three factors:
1. The bandwidth available
2. The level of the signals we use
3. The quality of the channel (the level of noise)
Note

Increasing the levels of a signal increases the

probability of an error occurring, in other words
it reduces the reliability of the system. Why??

3.45
Capacity of a System

• The bit rate of a system increases with an increase

in the number of signal levels we use to denote a
symbol.
• A symbol can consist of a single bit or “n” bits.
• The number of signal levels = 2n.
• As the number of levels goes up, the spacing
between level decreases -> increasing the
probability of an error occurring in the presence of
transmission impairments.

3.46
Shannon’s Theorem
This theorem establishes the theoretical limit of the maximum data rate that can be
transmitted over a noisy communication channel without errors.
The Shannon capacity theorem defines the maximum amount of information, or data
capacity, which can be sent over any channel or medium (wireless, coax, twister pair,
fiber etc.). What this says is that higher the signal-to-noise (SNR) ratio and more the
channel bandwidth, the higher the possible data rate
Shannon’s theorem gives the capacity of a system in the presence of noise.
C = B log2(1 + SNR)

C= Capacity of the channel in bits per second

B= Bandwidth in Hertz

SNR= Signal to Noise power Ratio often expressed in dB

 Example

Consider an extremely noisy channel in which the value of the signal-to-noise ratio is
almost zero. In other words, the noise is so strong that the signal is faint. For this channel
the capacity C is calculated as

This means that the capacity of this channel is zero regardless of the bandwidth. In other
words, we cannot receive any data through this channel.

3.48
 Example

We can calculate the theoretical highest bit rate of a regular telephone line. A telephone
line normally has a bandwidth of 3000. The signal-to-noise ratio is usually 3162. For this
channel the capacity is calculated as

This means that the highest bit rate for a telephone line is 34.860 kbps. If we want to send
data faster than this, we can either increase the bandwidth of the line or improve the
signal-to-noise ratio.

3.49
References

• Simon Haykin, “Digital Communication”, John Wiley, 4th Ed.

• B.P. Lathi, “Modern Digital & Analog Communication
Systems”, Oxford University Press, 4th Ed.
• Taub, Schilling, “Principles of Communication Systems”,
McGraw Hill
• Prokis J.J , “Digital Communications”, McGraw Hill

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THANK YOU

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