Research Process: 8 Steps in

Research Process
• The research process starts with identifying a
research problem and conducting a literature
review to understand the context. The
researcher sets research questions,
objectives, and hypotheses based on the
research problem.
 8 steps in the research process are;
1. Identifying the Research Problem
2. Reviewing of Literature
3. Setting Research Questions, Objectives, and Hypotheses
4. Choosing the Study Design
5. Deciding on the Sample Design
6. Collecting Data From The Research Sample
7. Process and Analyze the Collected Research Data
8. Writing Research Report – Developing Research
Proposal, Writing Report, Disseminating and Utilizing
Results
Step #1: Identifying the Research Problem
 Identification of research problem
Identification of research problem refers to
the sense of awareness of a prevalent social
problem, a social phenomenon or a concept
that is worth study – as it requires to be
investigated to understand it. The researcher
identifies such a research problem through
his observation, knowledge, wisdom and
skills.
 Criteria for Selecting a Problem
• Interest
– Most important
• Significance
– Theoretical value
– Practical value
– Timeliness
– External review
• Manageability
– Expertise, time, resources
– Free from personal bias
 Types of research Problem
Descriptive research problems
• focus on questions like ‘what is ?’, with its main aim to describe the
situation, state or the existence of certain specific phenomena.
They seek to depict what already exists in a group or population.
For such studies, surveys and opinion polls are best suitable
because they require systematic observation of social issues.

• For example, ‘what are the main factors affecting consumers’

purchase decisions?’ These problems use two different ways to
collect data- cross-sectional studies and longitudinal studies. Cross-
sectional studies provide a snapshot of data at a certain moment in
time. On the other hand, longitudinal studies involve a fixed and
stable sample that is measured repeatedly over time
 Causal research problems
• Causal research problems focus on identifying the extent and
nature of cause and effect relationships. Such research problems
help in assessing the impact of some changes on existing norms
and processes. They thus identify patterns of relationships
between different elements.

• For example, ‘how does online education affect students’ learning

abilities?’ In such cases, experiments are the most popular way of
collecting primary data. Here, the hypothesis is usually directional,
explaining how one factor affects the behaviour of another one.
Such studies give the researcher the freedom to manipulate the
variables as desired. Data for causal research can be collected in
two ways: laboratory experiments and field experiments.
 Relational research problem
• This research problem states that some sort of
relationship between two variables needs to be
investigated. The aim is to investigate the qualities
or characteristics that are connected in some way.

• For example, ‘how is the experience of a teacher

related to his/ her teaching style?’ Thus this sort of
research problem requires more than one variable
that describes the relationship between them
 Sources of Problems
• The identification of a problem to study can be
challenging, not because there's a lack of issues
that could be investigated, but due to the
challenge of formulating an academically
relevant and researchable problem which is
unique and does not simply duplicate the work
of others. To facilitate how you might select a
problem from which to build a research study,
consider these sources of inspiration:
 Deductions from Theory

• This relates to deductions made from social

philosophy or generalizations embodied in life
and in society that the researcher is familiar
with. These deductions from human behavior
are then placed within an empirical frame of
reference through research
 Interdisciplinary Perspectives

• Identifying a problem that forms the basis for

a research study can come from academic
movements and scholarship originating in
disciplines outside of your primary area of
study. This can be an intellectually stimulating
exercise
 Interviewing Practitioners
• The identification of research problems about particular
topics can arise from formal interviews or informal
discussions with practitioners who provide insight into
new directions for future research and how to make
research findings more relevant to practice. Discussions
with experts in the field, such as, teachers, social
workers, health care providers, lawyers, business leaders,
etc., offers the chance to identify practical, “real world”
problems that may be understudied or ignored within
academic circles. This approach also provides some
practical knowledge which may help in the process of
designing and conducting your study.
 Personal Experience

• Don't undervalue your everyday experiences

or encounters as worthwhile problems for
investigation. Think critically about your own
experiences and/or frustrations with an issue
facing society, your community, your
neighborhood, your family, or your personal
life.
 Relevant Literature

• The selection of a research problem can be

derived from a thorough review of pertinent
research associated with your overall area of
interest. This may reveal where gaps exist in
understanding a topic or where an issue has
been understudied
 Example
• While visiting a rural area, the UNICEF team observed that some villages
have female school attendance rates as high as 75%, while some have as
low as 10%, although all villages should have a nearly equal attendance
rate. What factors are associated with this discrepancy?
• We may enumerate several reasons for this:
• Villages differ in their socio-economic background.
• In some villages, the Muslim population constitutes a large proportion of
the total population. Religion might play a vital role.
• Schools are far away from some villages. The distance thus may make
this difference.
• Because there is more than one answer to the problem, it is considered
a research problem, and a study can be undertaken to find a solution.
Step #2: Review of Literature
Review of Literature
 The Value of a Literature Review
• The literature review is helpful in two ways:
• Helps researchers present the ideas of others interested in a particular
research question
• Allows them to see the results of similar studies performed or questions
answered
• This is usually required for master theses or doctoral
dissertations.
• Researchers need to know what has taken place in other
work related to their study.
• Researchers also need to evaluate this work to determine its
relevance to their research question.
 Types of Sources
• Researchers need to be familiar with three basic types of
sources:
– General references: most are either indexes or abstracts listed by the
author, title, or place of publication
– Primary sources: publications found in journals published monthly or
quarterly
– Secondary sources: textbooks where authors describe the works of
others
• The two methods used to perform a literature review are:
• Manually: traditional paper approach
• Electronically: use of a computer
 Doing a Computer Search
– Many online computer terminals are linked to one or
more information retrieval systems (scholar.google.,
ERIC, Research Gate, academia).
– Steps involved in a computer search are as follows:
• Define the problem as precisely as possible
• Decide on the extent of the search (number of references)
• Decide on the database (i.e., ERIC)
• Select descriptors (words that tell the computer what to search
for)
• Conduct the search by entering them into the computer
• Obtain a printout of desired references
 Researching the World Wide Web
• Part of the Internet
• A vast reservoir of information on all topics
• Using the WWW is an essential element when performing a
literature review, despite the use of ERIC and other databases of
choice
• Use of the following is essential when searching on the WWW:
– Use of a Web Browser: (computer program allowing access to the WWW)
– Use of search engines (programs that allow extensive searches throughout the
WWW by indexing them via the description typed)
– Use of directories (group websites linked by similar categorical terms)
 What should you write?
• the accepted facts in the area
• the popular opinion
• the main variables
• the relationship between variables
• shortcomings in the existing findings
• limitations in the methods used in the existing findings
• the relevance of your research
• suggestions for further research in the area.
 What should you write?
• Language focus
– Create a balance between direct quotation (citation) and
paraphrasing. Avoid too much direct quoting. The verb tense
chosen depends on your emphasis:
• When you are citing a specific author's findings, use the past tense:
(found, demonstrated);
• When you are writing about an accepted fact, use the present tense:
(demonstrates, finds); and
• When you are citing several authors or making a general statement, use
the present perfect tense: (have shown, have found, little research has
been done).
 Summary table

• It is useful to prepare Such a table provides a quick overview

• The tables could include columns with headings such as
– Author
– type of study
– Sample
– Design
– data collection approach
– key findings

26
 Citation Sample Environment Method Conclusions
Summary table of literature Colour
Bellizzi, Crowley and 125 Adults Furniture store Laboratory Warm and cool colours created different emotional
Hasty (1983) experiment responses. Customers view red retail environments as
Photographic more negative and unpleasant than blue.
slide
simulations

Bellizzi, & Hite 70 Adult women Televisions Laboratory Study based on PAD affect measures and approach-
(1992) 107 Students shown with experiments avoidance behaviours.
different colour Photographic More positive retail outcomes occurred in blue
backgrounds slide environments than red.
Furniture stores simulations

Music
Smith and Curnow 1100 Retail store Field Time in store reduced with loud music but level of sales
(1966) Supermarket experiment did not.
shoppers

Milliman (1982) 216 Shoppers Supermarket Field The tempo of background music influenced the pace at
experiment which customers shopped. Slow tempo music slowed
customers down but resulted in increased volume of
sales.

Hui, Dubé and Chebat 116 Students Bank branch Laboratory The positive impact of music on approach behaviours is
(1997) - waiting for experiment mediated by an emotional evaluation of the environment
service. Video and the emotional response to waiting. Pleasurable music
simulation produced longer perceived waiting times.

Lighting
Areni and Kim (1994) 171 Shoppers Wine store Field The investigation found that brighter in-store lighting
experiment influenced shoppers to examine and handle more of the
merchandise in the store

Summers and Hebert 2367 Customers Hardware store Field Confirmed Areni and Kims (1994) results. Increased
(2001) Apparel store experiment levels of lighting will produce arousal and pleasure and
increase the approach behaviours of customers.

27
Four Analysis Tasks of the
Literature Review
 Summary and Synthesis
In simple words, summarize and/or
synthesize the key findings relevant
to your study.
• What do we know about the immediate area?
• What are the key arguments, key characteristics,
key concepts or key figures?
• What are the existing debates/theories?
• What common methodologies are used?
 Comparison and Critique
Evaluates the strength and weaknesses of the
work:
• How do the different studies relate? What is new, different,
or controversial‫?م‬
• What is need for further testing?
• What evidence is lacking, inconclusive, or too limited?
• What research designs or methods seem unsatisfactory?
Step #3: Setting Research Questions,
Objectives, and Hypotheses
After discovering and defining the research problem,
researchers should
make a formal statement of the problem leading to res
earch objectives
.
An objective will precisely say what should be
researched, delineate the type of information that
should be collected, and provide a framework for the
scope of the study. A well-formulated, testable
research hypothesis is the best expression of a research
objective.
A hypothesis is an unproven statement or proposition
that can be refuted or supported by empirical data.
Hypothetical statements assert a possible answer to a
research question.
Step #4: Choosing the Study Design
• The research design is the blueprint or framework
for fulfilling objectives and
answering research questions.
• It is a master plan specifying the methods and
procedures for collecting, processing, and
analyzing the collected data. There are four basic
research designs that a researcher can use to
conduct their study;
• survey,
• experiment,
• secondary data study, and
• observational study.
The type of research design to be chosen from
among the above four methods depends
primarily on four factors:

• The type of problem

• The objectives of the study,
• The existing state of knowledge about the
problem that is being studied, and
• The resources are available for the study.
Step #5: Deciding on the Sample Design
Sampling
 What is a Sample?

• Sampling is the process of selecting a

number of individuals from a population,
preferably in a way that the individuals
are representative of the larger group
from which they were selected.
• A sample is any group on which
information is obtained.
 Defining the Population
• A population refers to all the members of a particular group.
• The first task in selecting a sample is to define the population
of interest.
• In Educational Research, the population of interest is a group
of persons who possess certain characteristics.
• A target population is the actual population that the
researcher would like to generalize.
– Considered rarely available
– The accessible population would be the group that is available
(realistic choice)
Representative vs. Non-representative Samples
 Two Main Types of Sampling
• Sampling may be either random or non-random
• Random sampling is a method of selecting subjects
from a population by chance, so that biases do not
alter the sample.
• The 3 most common ways of obtaining this type of
sample are:
– Simple Random Sampling
– Stratified Random Sampling
– Cluster Sampling
 Part of a Table of Random Numbers
(Table 6.1)

011723 223456 222167 032762 062281 565451

912334 379156 233989 109238 934128 987678
086401 016265 411148 251287 602345 659080
059397 022334 080675 454555 011563 237873
666278 106590 879809 899030 909876 198905
051965 004571 036900 037700 500098 046660
063045 786326 098000 510379 024358 145678
560132 345678 356789 033460 050521 342021
727009 344870 889567 324588 400567 989657
000037 121191 258700 088909 015460 223350
667899 234345 076567 090076 345121 121348
042397 045645 030032 657112 675897 079326
987650 568799 070070 143188 198789 097451
091126 021557 102322 209312 909036 342045
 Simple Random Sampling
• A Simple Random Sampling is a sample selected from a population
in such a manner that all members have an equal chance of being
selected
• If the sample is large, it is the best method to obtain a sample
representative of the population from which it has been selected
• The larger the sample size, the more it is likely to represent the
population
• Any differences that occur are the result of chance rather than
bias on the part of the researcher
• Disadvantages of this method are:
1) the difficulty of performing the sampling and,
2) this method does not ensure that subgroups are present in the
sampling in the same proportion as they are in a population
 Stratified Random Sampling
• A Stratified Random Sampling is a sample selected so that certain
characteristics are represented in the sample in the same
proportion as they occur in the population
• The term strata refers to sub-groups
• The advantage of stratified random sampling is that it increases
the likelihood of representation, especially if the sample size is
small
• It virtually ensures that any key characteristics of individuals in
the population are included in the same proportions in the
sample size
• The disadvantage is that it requires still more effort on the part of
the researcher
Selecting a Stratified Sample (Figure 6.2)
 Cluster Random Sampling
• A Cluster Random Sampling is a sample obtained by
using groups as the sampling unit (cluster), rather than
individuals
• There are instances where it is not possible to select a
sample of individuals from a population
• This is considered more effective with large numbers
of clusters
• Advantages include more efficient and easier to
implement in schools
• Its disadvantage is that there is a great chance of
selecting a sample that is not representative of the
population
 Two-Stage Random Sampling
• This method selects groups randomly and then
chooses individuals randomly from these
groups.
• This becomes a combination of a cluster
random sampling with individual random
sampling.
• Considered less time consuming but allows for
a good representation of the groups at random.
 Nonrandom Sampling Methods
• There are 3 main types of nonrandom sampling methods used in
Educational Research
• A Systematic Sample is a sample obtained by selecting every nth
name in a population
• A Convenience Sample is any group of individuals that is
conveniently available to be studied
• Are not considered representative of the population and should be avoided, if
possible
• A Purposive Sample is a sample selected because the individuals
have special qualifications of some sort, or because of prior
evidence of representation
• Personal judgment is used for selection purposes
• A major disadvantage is that the researcher’s judgment could be in error
Convenience Sampling (Figure 6.4)
 Sample Size
• The question remains as to what constitutes an adequate sample size.
• Samples should be as large as a researcher can obtain with a reasonable
expenditure of time and energy.
• The recommended minimum number of subjects are as follows for the
following types of studies:
– 100 for a Descriptive Study
– 50 for a Correlational Study
– 30 in each group for Experimental and Causal-Comparative Study
Step #6: Collecting Data From The Research Sample
 Collecting Research Data
• Data gathering may range from simple observation to
a large-scale survey in any defined population. There
are many ways to collect data. The approach selected
depends on the objectives of the study, the research
design, and the availability of time, money, and
personnel.
• With the variation in the type of data (qualitative or q
uantitative) to be collected, the method of data collec
tion also varies
.
• The most common means for
collecting quantitative data is the
• Studies that obtain data by interviewing
respondents are called surveys.
Data can also be collected by using
self-administered questionnaires.
Telephone interviewing
is another way in which data may be collected.
• Other means of data collection include secondary
sources, such as the census, vital registration
records, official documents, previous surveys, etc.
• Qualitative data are collected mainly through in-
depth interviews, focus group discussions, Key
Informant Interview (KII), and observational
studies.
Step #7: Process and Analyze the Collected
Research Data
• Data processing generally begins with the editing and
coding of data
. Data are edited to ensure consistency across
respondents and to locate omissions if any.
• In survey data, editing reduces errors in the recording,
improves legibility, and clarifies unclear and
inappropriate responses. In addition to editing, the
data also need coding.
• Because it is impractical to place raw data into a
report, alphanumeric codes are used to reduce the
responses to a more manageable form for storage and
future processing.
• This coding process facilitates the processing of
the data. The personal computer offers an
excellent opportunity for data editing and coding
processes.
• Data analysis usually involves reducing
accumulated data to a manageable size,
developing summaries, searching for patterns, and
applying statistical techniques for understanding
and interpreting the findings in light of the
research questions.
• Further, based on his analysis, the researcher
determines if his findings are consistent with the
formulated hypotheses and theories.
• The techniques used in analyzing data may
range from simple graphical techniques to
very complex multivariate analyses depending
on the study’s objectives, the research design
employed, and the nature of the data
collected.
• As in the case of data collection methods, an
analytical technique appropriate in one
situation may not be suitable for another.
 Step #8: Writing Research Report – Developing
Research Proposal, Writing Report, Disseminating and
Utilizing Results
• The entire task of a research study is accumulated in a
document called a proposal or research proposal.
• A
research proposal is a work plan, prospectus, outline, o
ffer, and a statement of intent or commitment from an i
ndividual researcher or an organization to produce a pr
oduct or render a service to a potential client or sponso
r
.
• The proposal will be prepared to keep the sequence
presented in the research process. The proposal tells us
what, how, where, and to whom it will be done.
• It must also show the benefit of doing it. It always
includes an explanation of the purpose of the study
(the research objectives) or a definition of the problem.
• The end goal of a scientific study is to interpret
the results and draw conclusions.
• To this end, it is necessary to prepare a report and
transmit the findings and recommendations to
administrators, policymakers, and program
managers to make a decision.
• There are various research reports: term papers,
dissertations, journal articles, papers for
presentation at professional conferences and
seminars, books, thesis, and so on. The results of a
research investigation prepared in any form are of
little utility if they are not communicated to others.
• The primary purpose of a dissemination strategy
is to identify the most effective media channels
to reach different audience groups with study
findings most relevant to their needs.
• The dissemination may be made through a
conference, a seminar, a report, or an oral or
poster presentation.
• The style and organization of the report will differ
according to the target audience, the occasion,
and the purpose of the research. Reports should
be developed from the client’s perspective.
• A report is an excellent means that helps to establish
the researcher’s credibility. At a bare minimum, a
research report should contain sections on:

• An executive summary;
• Background of the problem;
• Literature review;
• Methodology;
• Findings;
• Discussion;
• Conclusions and
• Recommendations.
• The study results can also be disseminated (published)
through peer-reviewed journals published by academic
institutions and reputed publishers both at home and
abroad. The report should be properly evaluated.
• These journals have their format and editorial policies.
The contributors can submit their manuscripts adhering
to the policies and format for possible publications of
their papers.
• Although researchers are often not in a position to
implement a plan for utilizing research findings, they can
contribute by including in their research reports a few
recommendations regarding how the study results could
be utilized for policy formulation and program
intervention.