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Learning

The document discusses the definition and significance of learning, highlighting its role in behavior acquisition and emotional development. It outlines two primary approaches to learning: behavioral and cognitive, detailing concepts such as classical and operant conditioning, reinforcement, and cognitive maps. Additionally, it addresses factors influencing learning and applications of learning theories in managing psychiatric disorders.

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Ayatullah Hassan
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17 views22 pages

Learning

The document discusses the definition and significance of learning, highlighting its role in behavior acquisition and emotional development. It outlines two primary approaches to learning: behavioral and cognitive, detailing concepts such as classical and operant conditioning, reinforcement, and cognitive maps. Additionally, it addresses factors influencing learning and applications of learning theories in managing psychiatric disorders.

Uploaded by

Ayatullah Hassan
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Learning

Dr Huda Hossam El berkawy


Lecturer of psychiatry
Defintion:

• Acquisition of new behavior that result from practice and past


experience.
• Learning helps us in mastering new skills and academic subjects.
• It is also involved in emotional development, social interactions and
personality development.
• We learn what to fear, what to love, how to be polite,…
There are two
approaches to learning:

 The behavioral approach.


 The cognitive approach.
I. The behavioral approach:

Learning is based on associations ; Associative learning means that


certain events go together.
In classical conditioning:
an organism learns that one-event follows
another-for example a baby learns that the sight of a breast will be
followed by the taste of milk.
In operant conditioning:
an organism learns that a response it makes
will be followed by a particular consequence. For example, a young child
learns that striking a sibling will be followed by disapproval from his
parents.
Methods of learning:

1- Imitation: as in children.
2- Trial and error as in animals.
3- Insight learning: trial and error with planning a solution on a mental
level.
4- Conditioning (classical and operant).
A- Classical conditioning
(Pavlov):

Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which an originally natural


stimulus comes to evoke a new response after having been paired
(associated) with another stimulus that reflexively evokes the same
response.
This form of learning was described by Pavlov. He noted that a dog
salivates (unconditioned response; UR) at the sight of food
(unconditioned stimulus; US). Repeated pairing of a ringing bell
(conditioned stimulus, CS) with the sight of food results in learning,
the bell (CS) alone elicits salivation (conditioned response, CR).
Classical conditioning pairs a new stimulus with an existing response.
stages in classical
conditioning:

Stage 1 : is the pre-training phase. Food acts as a US and in its


presence a dog salivates. US --- UR.
Stage 2 : is the training phase, in which the sound of the bell is
paired on several occasions with the sight of food,
yielding an unconditioned response. CS +US ----- UR.
Stage 3 : The mere sound of the bell, in the absence of food,
elicits salivation. CS ---- CR.
Thus, in classical conditioning, a natural or reflex behavior
(salivation) is elicited in response to a learned stimulus (the sound of
bell).
Phenomena associated with classical
conditioning:

1. Stimulus generalization:
A dog trained to respond to a particular sound and then tested with a
sound of higher or lower pitch will continue to respond. The response to
stimuli, which are similar but not identical to the original, is termed
stimulus generalization.

2. Stimulus discrimination:
The capacity to respond in the presence of one stimulus and not in the
presence of another.
A dog can be trained to salivate in response to a high pitch sound but not
in response to a low pitch sound.
3. Extinction:
The process by which a response is removed by repeated presentation of
the CS (the sound of the bell) in the absence of the US (the food).
4. Spontaneous recovery:
The process whereby a behavior, which was extinguished again
reappears.
B- Operant conditioning
(Skinner): (Instrumental
learning)
This is based on the observation that behavior, which is followed by a
reward, is likely to be repeated, whereas behavior followed by noxious
consequences will be eliminated.
An operant is a behavior carried out on the environment.
In order to study such behavior, the animal is placed in a box. After a
period accidentally the animal presses a lever present in the box.
This behavior is rewarded with a pellet of food. After a few such
occasions this behavior (pressing the lever) becomes established.
Thus, operant conditioning is concerned with the consequences of
actions.
Concepts associated with
operant conditioning

Reinforcement:
It establishes a connection between a stimulus and a response and can
be positive or negative.
A positive
reinforce is a reward;
A negative reinforces is the avoidance of an unpleasant event,
both the positive and negative reinforcements increase the rate of
behavior, both can be used to reward a desired behavior.
Concepts associated with
operant conditioning
Reinforcement:
It establishes a connection between a
stimulus and a response and can be
positive or negative.

A positive reinforce is a
reward;
A negative reinforces is the avoidance
of an unpleasant event,
both the positive and negative
reinforcements increase the rate of
behavior, both can be used to reward a
desired behavior.
Schedules (patterns) of reinforcement:
1. Continuous reinforcement is presented after every response and is the
least resistant to extinction.
2. Fixed reinforcement is presented after a set number of responses
(fixed ratio and fixed interval).
3. Variable reinforcement occurs after a random and unpredictable
number of responses and is very resistant to extinction. The most rapid
acquisition of behavior is associated with variable reinforcement.
Shaping:
Production of new behaviors by reinforcement of natural responses,
which approximate to the desired one. It is a procedure whereby
behavior already present is used as basis for acquiring new behavior.
Patterns of behavior which approximate to the desired are reinforced. In
articulate utterances in the case of a mentally retarded child may be
used as the basis for language acquisition. Thus, shaping involves
rewarding closer and closer approximations at the desired behavior until
the correct behavior is achieved.
Chaining:
Teaching of complex behaviors by breaking them down into simple
components. The first action in the sequence is reinforced once acquired.
Reinforcement is given only following both the first and second
components and so on until the complete sequences is established.
N.B. Chaining and shaping are extensively used in teaching children with
severe
learning difficulties.
Punishment: A noxious stimulus is presented after a behavior to prevent
its
recurrence in the future.
II-The cognitive approach to
understanding learning:

Cognitive learning involves the acquisition of knowledge or


understanding and need not be directly reflected in behavior , it involves
changes that occur within one's cognitions. Cognitions are mental
representations. They include our ideas, beliefs, understanding
Cognitive concepts of
learning

1. Learning sets or learning to learn:


Previous learning experiences can affect present and future learning. In this
case making them easier. We can not teach students all the answers to all the
questions and problems. Our best hope is to teach them strategies to deal with
similar tasks in the future.
2. Latent learning-cognitive map:
When one acquires a cognitive map, one develops a mental representation (or
picture) of one's surroundings an appreciation of general location and where
objects are located.
3. Social learning and modeling:
Learning takes place through the observation and the imitation of models.
Children can learn all sorts of behaviors by watching others or TV.
Factors affecting learning:

a- Personal factors:
• Intelligence, attention and motivation.
• Physiological state.
• Psychological state.
• Past experiences.
b- Learned material and learning strategy:
• Meaningful more than meaningless material.
• Using of mnemonic devices.
• Selection, emphasizing, summarizing of the learned material.
c- Type of learning:
Application of learning theories in
the management of
psychiatric disorders:

• Aversion therapy in the treatment of addition.


• Flooding in cases of phobias.
• Positive reconditioning in nocturnal enuresis.
• Systematic desensitization in phobias.
• Modeling and reinforcement in mentally retarded and chronic
• psychotic patients..
Thank you

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