Sampling, Data Collection and Processing:

Sampling-Meaning-Types of Sampling- Steps in Sampling-Meaning of Data-Data Vs Information-Types of

data-Primary and Secondary Data- Methods of Primary Data–A)Observation B) Experimental (i) Field
and (ii) Laboratory (iii) Interview :Direct personal Interview-Focus Group (In-depth)Interviews- (iv)Case
study research design (v) Survey Method-Telephonic Survey-Mail- E-mail-Social Media-Questionnaire
Design: Questionnaire-Schedule- Questionnaire vs Schedule- Structured - Unstructured –Types of
Questions - Closed ended and Open Ended.
Scaling Techniques -Likert Scale- Thurstone Scale- Guttman Scale-Semantic Differential Scale.
 Sampling

There is practical difficulty in studying all the

individuals in the population and it is too time-
consuming not cost effective.
Sample results are usually acceptable if the
sample is representative of the population to
be studied
The main Objectives of Sampling are:
Estimation of population parameters (Mean,
proportion etc.) from the sample statistics.
To test the hypothesis about the population
from which the sample or samples are drawn,
Types of Sampling
• Simple random sampling
• Systematic random sampling
• Stratified random sampling
• Multistage sampling
• Multi-phase sampling
• Cluster sampling
Simple Random Sampling
• This is done by Assigning a number to each of the units in the
sampling frame.
• The numbers are randomly chosen to determine which units are
to be included in to sample.
• Each unit has an equal chance of being drawn in the sample.
• For ensuring that the Numbers are Chosen Randomly, one can
use
 a random number table,
 Lottery method or
 the numbers on currency notes
Simple Random Sampling
Advantages
• It provides us with a sample that is highly representative of the population
being studied, as it avoids human bias
• Hence it allows us to make generalizations from the sample to the
population.
Disadvantages
• A simple random sample can only be carried out if the list of the population is
available and is complete.
• Attaining a complete list of the population can be difficult
• Due to privacy policies or require a lengthy process to attain permissions.
• There may be no single list detailing the population you are interested in.
• Even if the list has all the contact details of potential participants, contacting
them may be challenging, as the sample may be geographically scattered.
Systematic random sampling
It consists of the following steps
• (a) Defining the population (p);
• (b) Deciding on the sample size (s);
• (c) Listing the population and assigning numbers to cases
(sampling frame);
• (e) Calculating the ‘sampling interval’ (p/s = K); Total Population
size/desired sample size = Sampling interval (K)
• (f) Selecting the first unit RANDOMLY; and
• (g) Selecting every Kth unit from there
• The first unit is selected randomly and then every Kth unit is
selected.
Systematic random sampling
For example: For a study among the households of a locality.
• The houses are numbered first.
• Then for a 10% sample, a random number is selected between
1&10 (say four).
• Then every 10th number is selected form that point e.g. 4.14,24
34 etc.
• The ‘regular interval (K)’ depends upon the size of the sample to
be withdrawn and is known as the ‘Sampling interval’.
Systematic random sampling
Advantages
• Systemic random sample also provides us with a sample that is
representative of the population under study
• Relative to the simple random sample, it may be more convenient
when the population is large, scattered and not homogeneous
Disadvantages
• A systematic random sample can be carried out only if a complete
list of the population is available
• If the list of the population has some kind of periodic arrangement
(pattern), systematic sampling could pick out similar cases rather
than completely random ones
Stratified random sampling
• The sample is drawn in a way so that each portion of the sample
represents corresponding strata of the study population.
• This method is useful when one is interested in analyzing the data
by a certain characteristic of the population viz religion,
socioeconomic strata.
The steps in stratified random sampling are:
• To split the population into strata, i.e. sections or segments.
• The strata are chosen to divide a population into important
categories relevant to the research interest
• The sample is then drawn from each stratum Randomly In
proportion to its size
Stratified random sampling
For example, if want to find out the prevalence of anemia in school
students:
• Split schools into rural, urban, and peri-urban as the prevalence
may be quite distinct between these regions.
• The second step is to take a simple random sample within each
stratum in proportion to the numbers enrolled in the schools in
each stratum
Multistage sampling
• The sampling procedures carried out in several stages.
• Each stage uses random sampling techniques.
• This is employed in large, countrywide surveys.

• In the first stage, random numbers of districts are chosen in all the
states, followed by random no. of Talukas, From among the
chosen Taluks, villages are chosen randomly.
Multistage sampling
E.g. For hookworm survey in school children in a district.
• Choose 10% of Talukas randomly and then
• Choose10% of the villages situated in the chosen Talukas
• Among the chosen villages, choose 10% of the schools randomly
• From the chosen schools, 10% of the students are selected
randomly, yielding a 10% sample of the district school children
Multi-phase sampling
• In this method, part of the information is collected from the whole
population & part, from the sub- sample.

E.g. In a TB survey:
• Mantoux test may be done in all subjects of the study population
in the first phase;
• In the second phase, Mantoux positive cases undergo x-ray of the
chest
• Among the x-ray positive cases, sputum may be examined in the
third phase.
Cluster sampling
• This sampling technique used when a large study population is
"naturally" divided into clusters and the clusters in turn have a
homogeneous population

E.g. the country is sub-divided into towns, cities, wards, villages etc.
but relatively homogeneous groupings are evident in these villages,
slums etc.
Cluster sampling
In this technique,
• the total population of each cluster must be known
• The complete list (sampling frame) of all the individuals in the
country is not necessary
• A fixed number of clusters are chosen using cluster sampling
• A small sample is then selected from the chosen clusters using
simple random sampling OR The entire population of the cluster
may be surveyed
Cluster sampling
The advantage of cluster sampling is that
• it is cheap, quick, and easy as Instead of sampling the entire
country when using simple random sampling, the researcher can
allocate resources to the few selected clusters.

The disadvantage of Cluster Sampling is that

• it is the least representative of the population out of all the types
of probability samples
Cluster sampling
E.g. WHO has approved ‘30 – cluster sampling’ for evaluating the
immunization coverage among 12-23 month old children in the
entire country
• In this method only 210 children (7 from each of the 30 chosen
clusters) are to be examined and the findings can be generalized
to be representative of the country’s immunization coverage
among 12 – 23 months old children
Sampling Errors
• The difference between a sample statistic and its corresponding
population parameter.

• If a number of samples are taken from the same population, the

statistics like mean and SD will be slightly different in each sample
• This type of variation from sample to sample and sample to the
population is called sampling error.

• Since only part (sample) of the population is examined instead of

the whole, this error is inherent in the sampling process
Sampling Errors
The factors affecting the sampling error are:

• The size of the sample (as the size of the sample increases
sampling error decreases)
• The natural variability of the individual readings
Non - Sampling Errors
• This error has no relationship to the sampling technique

The main reasons are:

• human-related data recording (observer variation)

• Inadequate calibration of the instruments
• non-response from the sample subjects
• These errors are more important than the sampling errors and
measures should be taken to minimize these
Steps in Sampling Process
An operational sampling process can be divided into seven steps as
given below:
• Defining the target population.
• Specifying the sampling frame.
• Specifying the sampling unit.
• Selection of the sampling method.
• Determination of sample size.
• Specifying the sampling plan.
• Selecting the sample.
1. Defining the Target Population:

• In general, target population is defined in terms of element,

sampling unit, extent, and time frame. The definition should be in
line with the objectives of the research study.
1. Defining the Target Population:

• For ex, if a kitchen appliances firm wants to conduct a survey to ascertain the
demand for its micro ovens, it may define the population as ‘all women
above the age of 20 who cook (assuming that very few men cook)’.
• The definition can be further refined and defined at the sampling unit level,
that, all women above the age 20, who cook and whose monthly
household income exceeds Rs.20,000.
• The population definition can be refined further by specifying the area from
where the researcher has to draw his sample, that is, households located
in Hyderabad.
2. Specifying the Sampling Frame:
• A sampling frame is the list of elements from which the sample may be
drawn.
• Continuing with the micro oven ex, an ideal sampling frame would be a
database that contains all the households that have a monthly income
above Rs.20,000.
• In general, researchers use easily available sampling frames like
telephone directories and lists of credit card and mobile phone users.
2. Specifying the Sampling Frame:

• The available sampling frames are like telephone directories and

lists of credit card and mobile phone users.
• Sometimes, maps and aerial pictures are also used as sampling
frames.
• Whatever may be the case, an ideal sampling frame is one that
entire population and lists the names of its elements only once.
2. Specifying the Sampling Frame:

• A sampling frame error pops up when the sampling frame does

not accurately represent the total population or when some
elements of the population are missing another drawback in the
sampling frame is over —representation.
• Example: A telephone directory can be over represented by
names/household that have two or more connections.
3. Specifying the Sampling Unit:

• A sampling unit is a basic unit that contains a single element or a

group of elements of the population to be sampled.
• Example: A household becomes a sampling unit and all women
above the age of 20 years living in that particular house become
the sampling elements.
• If it is possible to identify the exact target audience of the
business research, every individual element would be a sampling
unit. This would present a case of primary sampling unit.
3. Specifying the Sampling Unit:

• However, a convenient and better means of sampling would be to

select households as the sampling unit and interview all females
above 20 years, who cook. This would present a case of
secondary sampling unit.
4. Selection of the Sampling Method:

• The sampling method outlines the way in which the sample units
are to be selected.
• The choice of the sampling method is influenced by the objectives
of the business research, availability of financial resources, time
constraints, and the nature of the problem to be investigated.
• All sampling methods can be grouped under two distinct heads,
that is, probability and non-probability sampling.
5. Determination of Sample Size:

• The sample size plays a crucial role in the sampling process.

• There are various ways of classifying the techniques used in
determining the sample size.
• In non-probability sampling procedures, the allocation of budget,
thumb rules and number of sub groups to be analyzed,
importance of the decision, number of variables, nature of
analysis, incidence rates, and completion rates play a major role
in sample size determination.
5. Determination of Sample Size:

• In the case of probability sampling, however, formulas are used to

calculate the sample size after the levels of acceptable error and
level of confidence are specified. The details of the various
techniques used to determine the sample size will be explained at
the end of the chapter
6. Specifying the Sampling Plan:

• In this step, the specifications and decisions regarding the implementation of

the research process are outlined.
• Suppose, blocks in a city are the sampling units and the households are the
sampling elements. This step outlines the modus operandi of the sampling
plan in identifying houses based on specified characteristics. It includes
issues like how is the interviewer going to take a systematic sample of the
houses. What should the interviewer do when a house is vacant? What is the
recontact procedure for respondents who were unavailable? All these and
many other questions need to be answered for the smooth functioning of the
research process.
6. Specifying the Sampling Plan:

• These are guide lines that would help the researcher in every step of the
process.
• As the interviewers and their co-workers will be on field duty of most of the
time, a proper specification of the sampling plans would make their work
easy and they would not have to revert to their seniors when faced with
operational problems.
7. Selecting the Sample:

• This is the final step in the sampling process, where the actual
selection of the sample elements is carried out.
• At this stage, it is necessary that the interviewers stick to the rules
outlined for the smooth implementation of the business research.
• This step involves implementing the sampling plan to select the
sampling plan to select a sample required for the survey.
Data and Information

• Usually, the terms “data” and “information” are used interchangeably.

However, there is a subtle difference between the two.
• In a nutshell, data can be a number, symbol, character, word, codes, graphs,
etc. On the other hand, information is data put into context. Information is
utilised by humans in some significant way (such as to make decisions,
forecasts etc).
• A basic example of information would be a computer. A computer uses
programming scripts, formulas, or software applications to turn data into
information.
Data and Information
Data Information

Data is unorganised and unrefined facts Information comprises processed, organised

data presented in a meaningful context

Data is an individual unit that contains raw Information is a group of data that collectively
materials which do not carry any specific carries a logical meaning.
meaning.
Data doesn’t depend on information. Information depends on data.

Raw data alone is insufficient for decision Information is sufficient for decision making
making
An example of data is a student’s test score The average score of a class is the information
derived from the given data.
Thurstone scale
• Thurstone scale is defined as a unidimensional scale that is used to
track respondent’s behavior, attitude or feeling towards a subject.
• This scale consists of statements about a particular issue or topic
where each statement has a numerical value that indicates the
respondents attitude towards the topic as favorable or unfavorable.
• Respondents indicate the statements that they agree with, and an
average is computed.
• A mean score of the agreements or disagreements is calculated as
the attitude of the respondent towards the topic.
Thurstone scale _ Example
Likert scale
• A Likert scale is a rating scale used to measure survey participants'
opinions, attitudes, motivations, and more. It uses a range of
answer options ranging from one extreme attitude to another,
sometimes including a moderate or neutral option. However, 4- to
7-point scales are the most popular.
The Guttman Scale
The Guttman scale is a commonly used unidimensional scale, like the
Likert scale and the Thurstone scale. The Guttman scale is also known
as cumulative scaling or scalogram analysis. It is an ordinal scale with
a number of statements placed in a hierarchical order. The order is
arranged so that if a respondent agrees with a statement, they will
also agree with all of the statements that fall below it in extremity.
The first statement that indicates disagreement shows the
respondent’s position on the subject.
Semantic Differential Scale
• A semantic differential scale is a survey question used to measure
people’s attitudes, feelings, or perceptions by having them submit
a rating between two opposing adjectives. Each end of the scale
features a pair of contrasting terms—such as “unreliable” and
“reliable”—with a fixed number of points in between, typically
seven. However, five-point scales are also used, as they are more
user-friendly, especially for respondents on mobile devices.