SEEM4540 Open Systems For E-Commerce

Chapter 5 Network Layer (Control Plane)

Xunying Liu
[email protected]

The Chinese University Of Hong Kong

Chapter 5: network layer
control plane
chapter goals: understand principles
behind network control plane

Network Layer: Control 5-2

Plane
Chapter 5: outline
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Routing algorithms:
 link state (Dijkstra’s algorithm)
 distance vector (Dynamic
Programming)
5.3 intra-domain routing in the Internet:
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
5.4 inter-domain routing among the
ISPs:
Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)
Network Layer: Control 5-3
Plane
 Network-layer functions
Recall: two network-layer
functions:
forwarding: move
packets from router’s data plane
input to appropriate
router output
 routing: determine
route taken by packets control plane
from source to
destination
wo approaches to structuring network control plane:
per-router control (traditional)
logically centralized control (software defined networking)

Network Layer: Control 5-4

Plane
Per-router control plane
Individual routing algorithm components in each and every
router interact with each other in control plane to compute
forwarding tables

Routing
Algorithm
control
plane

data
plane

Network Layer: Control 5-5

Plane
Logically centralized control plane
A distinct (typically remote) controller interacts with local
control agents (CAs) in routers to compute forwarding tables

Remote Controller

control
plane

data
plane

CA
CA CA CA CA

Network Layer: Control 5-6

Plane
Chapter 5: outline
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Routing algorithms:
 link state (Dijkstra’s algorithm)
 distance vector (Dynamic
Programming)
5.3 intra-domain routing in the Internet:
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
5.4 inter-domain routing among the
ISPs:
Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)
Network Layer: Control 5-7
Plane
Routing protocols

Routing protocol goal: determine

“good” paths (equivalently, routes),
from sending hosts to receiving host,
through network of routers
 path: sequence of routers packets will
traverse in, going from given initial
source host to given final destination
host
 “good”: least “cost”, “fastest”, “least
congested”
 routing: a “top-10” networking
challenge! Network Layer: Control 5-8
Plane
Graph abstraction of the
network
5
3
v w 5
2
u 2 1 z
3
1 2
x 1
y
graph: G = (N,E)

N = set of routers = { u, v, w, x, y, z }

E = set of links ={ (u,w), (u,v), (u,x), (v,x), (v,w), (x,w), (x,y), (w,y), (w,z), (y,z) }

aside: graph abstraction is useful in other network contexts, e.g.,

P2P, where N is set of peers and E is set of TCP connections

Network Layer: Control 5-9

Plane
 Graph abstraction: costs
5
c(x,x’) = cost of link (x,x’)
3 e.g., c(w,z) = 5
v w 5
2
u cost could always be 1, or
2
3
1 z inversely related to bandwidth,
1 2 or related to congestion
x 1
y

cost of path (x1, x2, x3,…, xp) = c(x1,x2) + c(x2,x3) + … + c(xp-1,xp)

key question: what is the least-cost path between u and z ?

outing algorithm: algorithm that finds that least cost path

Network Layer: Control 5-10

Plane
 Graph abstraction: costs
5
c(x,x’) = cost of link (x,x’)
3 e.g., c(w,z) = 5
v w 5
2 < c(w,y) + c(y,z) = 1 + 2 = 3
u 2 1 z
3 cost could always be 1, or
1 2 inversely related to bandwidth,
x 1
y
or related to congestion

cost of path (x1, x2, x3,…, xp) = c(x1,x2) + c(x2,x3) + … + c(xp-1,xp)

key question: what is the least-cost path between u and z ?

outing algorithm: algorithm that finds that least cost path

Network Layer: Control 5-11

Plane
Routing algorithm
classification
Q: global or decentralized Q: static or
information? dynamic?
global:
 all routers have static:
 routes change slowly
complete topology, link
cost info over time
 “link state” algorithms dynamic:
 routes change more
decentralized:
 router knows quickly
physically-connected • periodic update
neighbors, link costs to • in response to link
neighbors cost changes
 iterative process of
computation, exchange
of info with neighbors
 “distance vector” Network Layer: Control 5-12
Plane
Chapter 5: outline
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Routing algorithms:
 link state (Dijkstra’s algorithm)
 distance vector (Dynamic
Programming)
5.3 intra-domain routing in the Internet:
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
5.4 inter-domain routing among the
ISPs:
Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)
Network Layer: Control 5-
Plane 13
A link-state routing algorithm
Dijkstra’s algorithm
notation:
 c(x,y):
net topology, link
link cost from node x to y; = ∞ if not
direct neighbors
costs known to all
 nodescurrent value of cost of path from a
D(v):
source node tovia
• accomplished dest.
“linkv
 state broadcast”
p(v): predecessor node along path from source
• all nodes have same
to v
info
 N': set of nodes whose least cost path
computes least cost
definitively
paths from oneknownnode
(“source”) to all
other nodes
• gives forwarding table
for that node
 iterative: after k
iterations, know least Network Layer: Control 5-14
Plane
Dijkstra’s algorithm
1 Initialization:
2 N' = {u}
3 for all nodes v
4 if v adjacent to u
5 then D(v) = c(u,v)
6 else D(v) = ∞
7
8 Loop
9 find w not in N' such that D(w) is a minimum
10 add w to N'
11 update D(v) for all v adjacent to w and not in N' :
12 D(v) = min( D(v), D(w) + c(w,v) )
13 /* new cost to v is either old cost to v or known
14 shortest path cost to w plus cost from w to v */
15 until all nodes in N'

Network Layer: Control 5-15

Plane
Dijkstra’s algorithm: example
(in steps)
D(v) D(w) D(x) D(y) D(z)
Step N' p(v) p(w) p(x) p(y) p(z)
0 u 7,u 3,u 5,u ∞ ∞
1 uw 6,w 11,w
2 uwx 14,x
3 uwxv 10,v
4 uwxvy 12,y
5 uwxvyz x
9

notes: 5
4
7
 construct shortest path
8
tree by tracing
predecessor nodes u
3 w y z
 ties can exist (can be 2
broken arbitrarily) 3
7 4
v
Network Layer: Control 5-16
Plane
Dijkstra’s algorithm: example
(step1)D(v) D(w) D(x) D(y) D(z)
Step N' p(v) p(w) p(x) p(y) p(z) C(u,x) = 5, C(u,w) = 3,
0 u 7,u 3,u 5,u ∞ ∞ C(u,v) = 7 are shortest
paths from node u to
nodes x, w, v

x
9

notes: 5
4
7
 construct shortest path
8
tree by tracing
predecessor nodes u
3 w y z
 ties can exist (can be 2
broken arbitrarily) 3
D(w) = 3, smaller than
D(v) = 7 and D(x) = 5, to 7 4
add node w to N’ next v
Network Layer: Control 5-17
Plane
Dijkstra’s algorithm: example
(step 2)
D(v) D(w) D(x) D(y) D(z) C(u,w) + C(w,v) = 3+3 = 6,
Step N' p(v) p(w) p(x) p(y) p(z) C(u,w) + C(w,y) = 3+8 = 11
0 u 7,u 3,u 5,u ∞ ∞ are NEW shortest paths from
1 uw 6,w 11,w node u to nodes v and y
New path C(u,w) + C(w,x) =
3+4 = 7 > C(u,x) = 5, NOT
considered
x
9

notes: 5
4
7
 construct shortest path
8
tree by tracing
predecessor nodes u
3 w y z
 ties can exist (can be 2
broken arbitrarily) 3
D(x) = 5, smaller than
7 4
D(v) = 6 and D(y) = 11,
to add node x to N’ next v
Network Layer: Control 5-18
Plane
Dijkstra’s algorithm: example
(step 3)
D(v) D(w) D(x) D(y) D(z) C(u,x) + C(x,z) = 5+9 = 14
Step N' p(v) p(w) p(x) p(y) p(z) is NEW shortest path
0 u 7,u 3,u 5,u ∞ ∞ from node u to z
1 uw 6,w 11,w New path C(u,x) + C(x,y)
2 uwx 14,x = 5+7 = 12 > C(u,y) =
C(u,w) + C(w,y) = 11, NOT
considered
x
9

notes: 5
4
7
 construct shortest path
8
tree by tracing
predecessor nodes u
3 w y z
 ties can exist (can be 2
broken arbitrarily) 3
D(v) = 6, smaller than
7 4
D(y) = 11 and D(z) = 14,
to add node v to N’ next v
Network Layer: Control 5-19
Plane
Dijkstra’s algorithm: example
(step 4)
D(v) D(w) D(x) D(y) D(z)
Step N' p(v) p(w) p(x) p(y) p(z)
0 u 7,u 3,u 5,u ∞ ∞ C(u,w) + C(w,v) + C(v,y) =
3+3+4 = 10 is NEW shortest
1 uw 6,w 11,w
path from node u to y
2 uwx 14,x
3 uwxv 10,v

x
9

notes: 5
4
7
 construct shortest path
8
tree by tracing
predecessor nodes u
3 w y z
 ties can exist (can be 2
broken arbitrarily) 3
D(y) = 10, smaller than
7 4
D(z) = 14, to add node y
to N’ next v
Network Layer: Control 5-20
Plane
Dijkstra’s algorithm: example
(step 5)
D(v) D(w) D(x) D(y) D(z)
Step N' p(v) p(w) p(x) p(y) p(z) C(u,w) + C(w,y) + C(v,y)
0 u 7,u 3,u 5,u ∞ ∞ + C(y,z) = 3+3+4+2 = 12
is NEW shortest path
1 uw 6,w 11,w
from node u to z
2 uwx 14,x
3 uwxv 10,v
4 uwxvy 12,y
x
9

notes: 5
4
7
 construct shortest path
8
tree by tracing
predecessor nodes u
3 w y z
 ties can exist (can be 2
broken arbitrarily) 3
D(z) = 12, now the only
7 4
unvisited node, finally
to add node z to N’ v
Network Layer: Control 5-21
Plane
Dijkstra’s algorithm: example
(step 6)
D(v) D(w) D(x) D(y) D(z)
Step N' p(v) p(w) p(x) p(y) p(z)
0 u 7,u 3,u 5,u ∞ ∞
1 uw 6,w 11,w
2 uwx 14,x
No more new edges,
3 uwxv 10,v algorithm terminates
4 uwxvy 12,y
5 uwxvyz x
9

notes: 5
4
7
 construct shortest path
8
tree by tracing
predecessor nodes u
3 w y z
 ties can exist (can be 2
broken arbitrarily) 3
7 4
v
Network Layer: Control 5-22
Plane
 Dijkstra’s algorithm: another
example
Step N' D(v),p(v) D(w),p(w) D(x),p(x) D(y),p(y) D(z),p(z)
0 u 2,u 5,u 1,u ∞ ∞
1 ux 2,u 4,x 2,x ∞
2 uxy 2,u 3,y 4,y
3 uxyv 3,y 4,y
4 uxyvw 4,y
5 uxyvwz
5

3
v w
2 5

u 2 1 z
3
1
2
x y
1
Network Layer: Control 5-23
Plane
 Dijkstra’s algorithm: another
example
Step N' D(v),p(v) D(w),p(w) D(x),p(x) D(y),p(y) D(z),p(z)
0 u 2,u 5,u 1,u ∞ ∞
1 ux 2,u 4,x 2,x ∞
2 uxy 2,u 3,y 4,y
3 uxyv 3,y 4,y
4 uxyvw 4,y
5 uxyvwz
C(u,x) = 1, C(u,w) = 5, 5
C(u,v) = 2 are shortest
paths from node u to 3
nodes x, w, v v w
2 5

D(x) = 1, smaller u 2 1 z
than D(v) = 2 3
and D(w) = 5, to 1
2
add node x to N’ x y
1
next
Network Layer: Control 5-24
Plane
 Dijkstra’s algorithm: another
example
Step N' D(v),p(v) D(w),p(w) D(x),p(x) D(y),p(y) D(z),p(z)
0 u 2,u 5,u 1,u ∞ ∞
11 1 ux 2,u 4,x 2,x ∞
2 uxy 2,u 3,y 4,y
3 uxyv 3,y 4,y
4 uxyvw 4,y
5 uxyvwz
C(u,x) + C(x,w) = 4, New path C(u,x) +
5 C(x,v) = 1+2 = 3 >
C(u,x) + C(x,y) = 2 are
NEW shortest paths C(u,v) = 2, NOT
3 considered
from node u to w, y v w
2 5

D(v) = 2, D(y) = 2 u 2 1 z
both smaller than 3
D(w) = 4, to add 1
2
node y to N’ x y
1
(randomly chosen
Network Layer: Control 5-25
to break tie) Plane
 Dijkstra’s algorithm: another
example
Step N' D(v),p(v) D(w),p(w) D(x),p(x) D(y),p(y) D(z),p(z)
0 u 2,u 5,u 1,u ∞ ∞
1 ux 2,u 4,x 2,x ∞
2 uxy 2,u 3,y 4,y
3 uxyv 3,y 4,y
4 uxyvw 4,y
5 uxyvwz
C(u,x)+C(x,y)+C(y,w)=3
C(u,x)+C(x,y)+C(y,z)=4 5
are NEW shortest
paths from u to w, z 3
v w
2 5

D(v) = 2, smaller u 2 1 z
than D(z) = 4 3
and D(w) = 3, to 1
2
add node v to N’ x y
1
next
Network Layer: Control 5-26
Plane
 Dijkstra’s algorithm: another
example
Step N' D(v),p(v) D(w),p(w) D(x),p(x) D(y),p(y) D(z),p(z)
0 u 2,u 5,u 1,u ∞ ∞
1 ux 2,u 4,x 2,x ∞
2 uxy 2,u 3,y 4,y
3 uxyv 3,y 4,y
4 uxyvw 4,y
5 uxyvwz C(v,w) = 3 too large
5 to provide a new
shortest path.
3 Table unchanged
v w
2 5

D(w) = 3, u 2 1 z
smaller than 3
D(z) = 4, to add 1
2
node w to N’ x y
1
next
Network Layer: Control 5-27
Plane
 Dijkstra’s algorithm: another
example
Step N' D(v),p(v) D(w),p(w) D(x),p(x) D(y),p(y) D(z),p(z)
0 u 2,u 5,u 1,u ∞ ∞
1 ux 2,u 4,x 2,x ∞
2 uxy 2,u 3,y 4,y
3 uxyv 3,y 4,y
4 uxyvw 4,y
5 uxyvwz C(w,z) = 5 too large
5 to provide a new
shortest path.
3 Table unchanged
v w
2 5
D(z) = 4, now
the only u
unvisited node,
2 1 z
3
finally to add 1
node z to N’ 2
x y
1
Network Layer: Control 5-28
Plane
 Dijkstra’s algorithm: another
example
Step N' D(v),p(v) D(w),p(w) D(x),p(x) D(y),p(y) D(z),p(z)
0 u 2,u 5,u 1,u ∞ ∞
1 ux 2,u 4,x 2,x ∞
2 uxy 2,u 3,y 4,y
3 uxyv 3,y 4,y
4 uxyvw 4,y
5 uxyvwz
5 No more new edges,
algorithm terminates
3
v w
2 5

u 2 1 z
3
1
2
x y
1
Network Layer: Control 5-29
Plane
 Dijkstra’s algorithm,
discussion
algorithm complexity: n nodes
 each iteration: need to check all nodes, w,
not in N
 n(n+1)/2 comparisons: O(n2)
 more efficient implementations possible:
O(nlogn)
oscillations possible:
 e.g., support link cost equals amount of
A 1+e
1 carried A A 2+e A
traffic:
2+e 0 0 2+e 0
D 0 0 B D 1+e 1 B D B D 1+e 1 B
0 0
0 e 0 0
1
C 1 C 0 1
C 1+e C 0
1 1 1 1 1 1
e e e e
given these costs, given these costs, given these costs,
initially find new routing…. find new routing….find new routing….
resulting in new costs resulting in new cost
resulting in new costs
Network Layer: Control 5-30
Chapter 5: outline
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Routing algorithms:
 link state (Dijkstra’s algorithm)
 distance vector (Dynamic
Programming)
5.3 intra-domain routing in the Internet:
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
5.4 inter-domain routing among the
ISPs:
Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)
Network Layer: Control 5-
Plane 31
Distance vector algorithm
Bellman-Ford equation (dynamic
programming)

let
dx(y) := cost of least-cost path from x to
y
then v

dx(y) = min {c(x,v) +neighbor

cost from dv(y) }v to destination
cost to neighbor v

min taken over all neighbors v of x

Network Layer: Control 5-32
Plane
 Bellman-Ford example
5
3
clearly, dv(z) = 5, dx(z) = 3, dw(z) = 3
v w 5
2
u 2 1 z B-F equation says:
3
1 du(z) = min { c(u,v) + dv(z),
2
1
x y
c(u,x) + dx(z),
c(u,w) + dw(z) }
= min {2 + 5,
1 + 3,
node achieving minimum is next 5 + 3} = 4
hop in shortest path, used in forwarding table

Network Layer: Control 5-33

Plane
 Bellman-Ford example
5
3
clearly, dv(z) = 5, dx(z) = 3, dw(z) = 3
v w 5
2
u 2 1 z B-F equation says:
3
1 du(z) = min { c(u,v) + dv(z),
2
1
x y
c(u,x) + dx(z),
c(u,w) + dw(z) }
= min {2 + 5,
1 + 3,
node achieving minimum is next 5 + 3} = 4
hop in shortest path, used in forwarding table

Network Layer: Control 5-34

Plane
 Bellman-Ford example
5
3
clearly, dv(z) = 5, dx(z) = 3, dw(z) = 3
v w 5
2
u 2 1 z B-F equation says:
3
1 du(z) = min { c(u,v) + dv(z),
2
1
x y
c(u,x) + dx(z),
c(u,w) + dw(z) }
= min {2 + 5,
1 + 3,
node achieving minimum is next 5 + 3} = 4
hop in shortest path, used in forwarding table

Network Layer: Control 5-35

Plane
 Bellman-Ford example
5
3
clearly, dv(z) = 5, dx(z) = 3, dw(z) = 3
v w 5
2
u 2 1 z B-F equation says:
3
1 du(z) = min { c(u,v) + dv(z),
2
1
x y
c(u,x) + dx(z),
c(u,w) + dw(z) }
= min {2 + 5,
1 + 3,
node achieving minimum is next 5 + 3} = 4
hop in shortest path, used in forwarding table

Network Layer: Control 5-36

Plane
Distance vector algorithm
key idea:
 from time-to-time, each node sends its
own distance vector estimate to
neighbors
 when x receives new DV estimate from
neighbor, it updates its own DV using B-
(y) ← minv{c(x,v) + Dv(y)} for each node y ∊ N
FDequation:
x

 under minor, natural conditions, the

estimate Dx(y) converge to the actual
least cost dx(y)

Network Layer: Control 5-37

Plane
Distance vector algorithm
iterative, each node:
asynchronous:
each local iteration
caused by: wait for (change in local link
cost or msg from neighbor)
 local link cost
change
 DV update message recompute estimates
from neighbor
distributed:
 each node notifies if DV to any dest has
neighbors only when changed, notify neighbors
its DV changes
• neighbors then notify
their neighbors if
necessary
Network Layer: Control 5-38
Plane
 Dx(z) = min{c(x,y) +
Dx(y) = min{c(x,y) + Dy(y), c(x,z) + Dz(y)}
= min{2+0 , 7+1} = 2 Dy(z), c(x,z) + Dz(z)}
= min{2+1 , 7+0} = 3
node x cost to cost to
table x y z x y z
x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3

from
from

y ∞∞ ∞ y 2 0 1
z ∞∞ ∞ z 7 1 0

node y cost to
table x y z y
2 1
x ∞ ∞ ∞
x z
from

y 2 0 1 7
z ∞∞ ∞

node z cost to
table x y z
x ∞∞ ∞
from

y ∞∞ ∞
z 7 1 0
time
Network Layer: Control 5-39
Plane
 Dx(z) = min{c(x,y) +
Dx(y) = min{c(x,y) + Dy(y), c(x,z) + Dz(y)}
= min{2+0 , 7+1} = 2 Dy(z), c(x,z) + Dz(z)}
= min{2+1 , 7+0} = 3
node x cost to cost to Dz(x) = Dx(z) = 3
table x y z x y z x y z
x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3 x 0 2 3

from
from

y ∞∞ ∞ y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1

from
z ∞∞ ∞ z 7 1 0 z 3 1 0
node y cost to cost to cost to
table x y z x y z x y z y
2 1
x ∞ ∞ ∞ x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3 x z
from

y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1 7
from

y 2 0 1

from
z ∞∞ ∞ z 7 1 0 z 3 1 0

node z cost to cost to cost to

table x y z x y z x y z

x ∞∞ ∞ x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3
from

from

y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1
from

y ∞∞ ∞
z 7 1 0 z 3 1 0 z 3 1 0
time
Dz(x) = Dx(z) = 3 Network Layer: Control 5-40
Plane
 Dx(z) = min{c(x,y) +
Dx(y) = min{c(x,y) + Dy(y), c(x,z) + Dz(y)}
= min{2+0 , 7+1} = 2 Dy(z), c(x,z) + Dz(z)}
= min{2+1 , 7+0} = 3
node x cost to cost to cost to Dz(x) = Dx(z) = 3
table x y z x y z x y z
x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3 x 0 2 3

from
from

y ∞∞ ∞ y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1

from
z ∞∞ ∞ z 7 1 0 z 3 1 0
node y cost to cost to cost to
table x y z x y z x y z y
2 1
x ∞ ∞ ∞ x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3 x z
from

y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1 7
from

y 2 0 1

from
z ∞∞ ∞ z 7 1 0 z 3 1 0

node z cost to cost to cost to

table x y z x y z x y z

x ∞∞ ∞ x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3
from

from

y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1
from

y ∞∞ ∞
z 7 1 0 z 3 1 0 z 3 1 0
time
Dz(x) = Dx(z) = 3 Network Layer: Control 5-41
Plane
 Distance vector: link cost
changes
link cost changes: 1
 node detects local link cost y
4 1
change
 updates routing info,
x z
50
recalculates
distance vector
 if DV changes, notify
“good t0 : y detects link-cost change, updates its DV, informs its
neighbors
news neighbors.
travels t1 : z receives update from y, updates its table, computes new
fast” least cost to x , sends its neighbors its DV.

t2 : y receives z’s update, updates its distance table. y’s least costs
do not change, so y does not send a message to z.

* Check out the online interactive exercises for more

examples: http://gaia.cs.umass.edu/kurose_ross/interactive/ Network Layer: Control 5-42
Plane
Distance vector: link cost
changes
link cost changes:
 node detects local link cost
change; other nodes rely on 60
y
neighbors' update 4 1
 bad news travels slow - x z
50
“count to infinity” problem!
(e.g., link failure)
 many iterations of DV update (y
Initially Dy(x) = 4, Dy(z) = Dz(y) = 1 and Dz(x) = 5
to x via z, and z to x via y)
Iter. 1: Dy(x) it
before = min{c(y,x)+D
stabilizes: x(x), c(y,z)+Dz(x)} = {60+0, 1+5} = 6
Iter. 2: Dz(x) = min{c(z,x)+Dx(x), c(z,y)+Dy(x)} = {50+0, 1+6} = 7
Iter. 3: Dy(x) = min{c(y,x)+Dx(x), c(y,z)+Dz(x)} = {60+0, 1+7} = 8
Iter. 4: Dz(x) = min{c(z,x)+Dx(x), c(z,y)+Dy(x)} = {50+0, 1+8} = 9
… ...
Iter. 44: Dz(x) = min{c(z,x)+Dx(x), c(z,y)+Dy(x)} = {50+0, 1+48} = 49
Iter. 45: Dy(x) = min{c(y,x)+Dx(x), c(y,z)+Dz(x)} = {60+0, 1+49} = 50
Iter. 46: Dz(x) = min{c(z,x)+Dx(x), c(z,y)+Dy(x)} = {50+0, 1+50} = 50
Iter. 47: Dy(x) = min{c(y,x)+Dx(x), c(y,z)+Dz(x)} = {60+0, 1+50}
Network=Layer:
51 Control 5-43
Plane
Comparison of LS and DV
algorithms
message complexity robustness: what
 LS: with n nodes, E links, happens if router
O(nE) msgs sent malfunctions?
 DV: exchange between LS:
neighbors only
• node can advertise
• convergence time incorrect link cost
varies
• each node computes
speed of only its own table
convergence DV:
 LS: O(n2) algorithm • DV node can advertise
requires O(nE) msgs incorrect path cost
• may have oscillations • each node’s table used
by others
 DV: convergence time
• error propagate thru
varies
network
• may be routing loops
• count-to-infinity
problem Network Layer: Control 5-44
Plane
Chapter 5: outline
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Routing algorithms:
 link state (Dijkstra’s algorithm)
 distance vector (Dynamic
Programming)
5.3 intra-domain routing in the Internet:
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
5.4 inter-domain routing among the
ISPs:
Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)
Network Layer: Control 5-
Plane 45
Making routing
scalable
our routing study thus far -
idealized
 all routers identical
 network “flat”
… not true in practice
scale: with billions administrative
of destinations: autonomy
 can’t store all  internet = network of
destinations in networks
routing tables!  each network admin
 routing table may want to control
exchange would routing in its own
swamp links! network
Network Layer: Control 5-46
Plane
Internet approach to scalable
routing
aggregate routers into regions known as
“autonomous systems” (AS) (a.k.a.
“domains”)
intra-AS routing inter-AS routing
 routing among hosts,  routing among AS’es
routers in same AS  gateways perform
(“network”) inter-domain routing
 all routers in AS must (as well as intra-
run same intra-domain domain routing)
protocol
 routers in different AS
can run different intra-
domain routing
protocols
 gateway router: at Network Layer: Control 5-47
Plane
Interconnected ASes

3c
3a 2c
3b 2a
AS3 2b
1c AS2
1a 1b AS1
1d  forwarding table
configured by both
intra- and inter-AS
Intra-AS Inter-AS routing algorithm
Routing
algorithm
Routing
algorithm
• intra-AS routing
determine entries
Forwarding
table
for destinations
within AS
• inter-AS & intra-AS
determine entries
for external
Network Layer: Control 5-48
Plane
 Inter-AS tasks
 suppose router in AS1 must:
AS1 receives 1. learn which dests
datagram destined are reachable
outside of AS1: through AS2, which
• router should through AS3
forward packet to 2. propagate this
gateway router, reachability info to
but which one? all routers in AS1
job of inter-AS routing!
3c
3a
3b
AS3 2c other
1c 2a networks
other 1a 2b
networks 1b AS2
AS1 1d

Network Layer: Control 5-49

Plane
Intra-AS Routing
 also known as interior gateway protocols
(IGP)
 most common intra-AS routing protocols:
• OSPF: Open Shortest Path First
(Link State routing)
• Intermediate System to Intermediate
System (IS-IS) protocol essentially
same as OSPF
• RIP: Routing Information Protocol
(Distance Vector routing)
• IGRP/EIGRP: (Enhanced) Interior
Gateway Routing Protocol (Distance
Vector routing, Cisco proprietary for
Network Layer: Control 5-50
Plane
OSPF (Open Shortest Path
First)
 “open”: publicly available (RFC2328,
RFC5340)
 uses link-state algorithm
• link state packet dissemination
• topology map at each node
• route computation using Dijkstra’s
algorithm
 router floods OSPF link-state advertisements
to all other routers in entire AS
• carried in OSPF messages directly over IP
(rather than TCP or UDP
• link state: for each attached link
• broadcasts a link’s state periodically (at
least every 30 minutes), even if Network
the link’s
Layer: Control 5-51
Plane
OSPF advanced features
 link costs: configurable by the network
administrator: can choose to set all link costs
to 1 (minimum-hop routing); or set link
weights to be inversely proportional to link
capacity, discouraging traffic on low-
bandwidth links

 security: all OSPF messages authenticated

(MD5 based hash function encryption to
prevent malicious intrusion)

 multiple same-cost paths allowed (only one

path in RIP); single path need not be chosen
for carrying all traffic when multiple equal-
cost paths exist
Network Layer: Control 5-52
Plane
Hierarchical
OSPF Other AS’es

boundary router
backbone router

backbone
area (OSPF routing)
border
routers

area 3

internal
routers
area 1 (OSPF
(OSPF area 2 routing)
routing)
(OSPF
routing) Network Layer: Control 5-53
Plane
Hierarchical
OSPF
 two-level hierarchy: local areas, backbone
area
• link-state (OSPF) advertisements only in
local areas; one or more area border
routers are responsible for routing
packets to outside the area
• one OSPF area in the AS is configured to
be the backbone area, routing traffic
between the other areas in the AS. The
backbone always contains all area
border routers in the AS
 area border routers: “summarize”
distances to nets in own area, advertise to
other area border routers. Network Layer: Control 5-54
Plane
Hierarchical
OSPF Other AS’es

boundary router
backbone router

backbone
area (OSPF routing)
border
routers

area 3

internal
routers
area 1 (OSPF
(OSPF area 2 routing)
routing)
(OSPF
routing) Network Layer: Control 5-55
Plane
OSPF advanced features
(Optional)
 for each link, multiple cost metrics for
different service networks:
• e.g., satellite link cost set low for best
effort service; high for real-time service
• considering balancing the choice of
different service networks
 integrated unicast and multi-cast support:
• Allow source to efficiently send OSPF
advertisements to a group of
destinations in a single transmission

Network Layer: Control 5-56

Plane
Chapter 5: outline
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Routing algorithms:
 link state (Dijkstra’s algorithm)
 distance vector (Dynamic
Programming)
5.3 intra-domain routing in the Internet:
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
5.4 inter-domain routing among the
ISPs:
Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)
Network Layer: Control 5-
Plane 57
Internet inter-AS routing: BGP
 BGP (Border Gateway Protocol): the de
facto inter-domain routing protocol
• “glue that holds the Internet together”
 BGP provides each AS a means to:
• eBGP: obtain subnet reachability
information from neighboring ASes
• iBGP: propagate reachability information to
all AS-internal routers.
• determine “good” routes to other networks
based on reachability information and
policy
 allows subnet to advertise its existence
to rest of Internet: “I am here”
Network Layer: Control 5-58
Plane
eBGP, iBGP connections

2b

2a 2c
∂
1b 3b
2d
1a 1c ∂
3a 3c
AS 2
1d 3d

AS 1 eBGP connectivity AS 3
iBGP connectivity

1c gateway routers run both eBGP and iBGP procotols

Network Layer: Control 5-59

Plane
BGP routing basics
 BGP session: two BGP routers (“peers”) exchange
BGP messages over TCP connection (port number
179):
• advertising paths to different destination network
prefixes
 when (IPs or subnets)
AS3 gateway (BGP
router 3a is a “path
advertises vector”
path AS3,X
to protocol)
AS2 gateway router 2c:
• AS3 promises to AS2 it will forward datagrams
towards X
AS 3 3b
AS 1 1b
3a 3c
1a 1c
AS 2 2b 3d X
1d
BGP advertisement:
2a 2c AS3, X

2d
Network Layer: Control 5-60
Plane
BGP policy-based routing
 Policy-based routing:
• gateway receiving route advertisement uses
import policy to accept/decline path (e.g.,
never route through AS Y).

• AS policy also determines whether to advertise

path to other other neighboring ASes

• often applied on a practical and economic basis

• allow ISPs to prevent excessive intermediate

routing via themselves for
non-customers/subscribers that are not in
directly neighboring AS’es
Network Layer: Control 5-61
Plane
BGP path advertisement
AS3 3b
AS1 1b
3a 3c
1a 1c
AS2 2b 3d X
1d AS3,X
AS2,AS3,X
2a 2c

2d

 AS2 router 2c receives path advertisement AS3,X (via

eBGP) from AS3 router 3a
 Based on AS2 policy, AS2 router 2c accepts path AS3,X,
propagates (via iBGP) to all AS2 routers
 Based on AS2 policy, AS2 router 2a advertises (via
eBGP) path AS2, AS3, X to AS1 router 1c
Network Layer: Control 5-62
Plane
BGP path advertisement
AS3 3b
AS1 1b AS3,X
3a 3c
1a 1c
AS2 2b 3d X
1d AS3,X
AS2,AS3,X
2a 2c

2d

gateway router may learn about multiple paths to

destination:
 AS1 gateway router 1c learns path AS2,AS3,X from 2a
 AS1 gateway router 1c learns path AS3,X from 3a
 Based on policy, AS1 gateway router 1c chooses path
AS3,X, and advertises path within AS1 via iBGP
(direct, no-intermediate routing)
Network Layer: Control 5-63
Plane
BGP messages
 BGP messages exchanged between peers over
TCP connection
 BGP messages:
• OPEN: opens TCP connection to remote BGP
peer and authenticates sending BGP peer
• UPDATE: advertises new path (or withdraws
old)
• KEEPALIVE: keeps connection alive in absence
of UPDATES; also ACKs OPEN request
• NOTIFICATION: reports errors in previous msg;
also used to close connection

Network Layer: Control 5-64

Plane
 BGP, OSPF, forwarding table
entries
Q: how does router set forwarding table entry to distant prefix?

AS3 3b
AS1 1b AS3,X
1 AS3,X
3a 3c
1a 2 1c
local link AS2 2b 3d X
interfaces 2 1d 1 AS3,X
at 1a, 1d AS2,AS3,X
2a 2c
physical link
2d

dest interface  recall: 1a, 1b, 1d learn about dest X

… … via iBGP from 1c: “path to X goes
X 1  through
1d: OSPF1c”intra-domain routing: to get
… … to 1c, forward over outgoing local
interface 1

Network Layer: Control 5-65

Plane
BGP, OSPF, forwarding table
entries
Q: how does router set forwarding table entry to distant prefix?

AS3 3b
AS1 1b
1
3a 3c
1a 2 1c
AS2 2b 3d X
1d
2a 2c

2d

dest interface  recall:1a, 1b, 1d learn about dest X

… … via iBGP from 1c: “path to X goes
X 2  through
1d: OSPF1c”intra-domain routing: to get
… … to 1c, forward over outgoing local
 interface 1
1a: OSPF intra-domain routing: to
get to 1c, forward over outgoing
local interface 2 Network Layer: Control 5-66
Plane
BGP route selection
 router may learn about more than one
route to destination AS, selects route
based on:
1. local preference value attribute: policy
decision
2. shortest AS-PATH (global inter-As path
selection)
3. closest NEXT-HOP router: hot potato routing
(local intra-As path selection)
4. additional criteria

Network Layer: Control 5-67

Plane
Hot Potato Routing
AS3 3b
AS1 1b
3a 3c
1a 1c
AS2 2b 3d X
1d 112
AS3,X
152
AS1,AS3,X 2a 263 2c
201
OSPF link weights
2d

 2d learns (via iBGP) it can route to X via 2a or 2c

 hot potato routing: choose local gateway that has
least intra-domain cost (e.g., 2d chooses 2a, even
though more AS hops to X): don’t worry about
inter-domain cost (via AS1 to AS3)!
Network Layer: Control 5-68
Plane
BGP: achieving policy via
advertisements legend: provider
B network
X
W A
customer
C network:

Y
Suppose an ISP only wants to route traffic to/from its customer
networks (does not want to carry transit traffic between other ISPs)
 A,B,C: provider networks (routes for their own
customers only)
 X,W,Y: customers (of provider networks)
 A advertises path Aw to B and to C
 B chooses not to advertise BAw to C:
 B gets no “revenue” for routing CBAw, since none of C,
A, w are B’s customers
 C does not learn about CBAw path
 C will route CAw (not using B) to get to w
Network Layer: Control 5-69
Plane
BGP: achieving policy via
advertisements
legend: provider
B network
X
W A
customer
C network:

Suppose an ISP only wants to route traffic to/from its customer

networks (does not want to carry transit traffic between other ISPs)

 A,B,C: provider networks (routes for their own

customers only)
 X,W,Y: customers (of provider networks)
 X is dual-homed: attached to two networks
 policy to enforce: X does not want to route from B
to C via X Network Layer: Control 5-70
 Plane
Why different Intra-, Inter-AS
routing ?
policy:
 inter-AS: admin wants control over how its
traffic routed, who routes through its net.
 intra-AS: single admin, so no policy
decisions needed
scale:
 hierarchical routing saves table size,
reduced update traffic
performance:
 intra-AS: can focus on performance
 inter-AS: policy may dominate over
performance
Network Layer: Control 5-71
Plane
Chapter 5: summary
 approaches to network control plane
• per-router control (traditional)
• Link state
• Distance vector

 traditional routing algorithms

• implementation in Internet: OSPF, BGP

next stop: link layer!

Network Layer: Control 5-72

Plane